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Discoveries in Agriculture and Food Sciences - Vol. 12, No. 5
Publication Date: October 25, 2024
DOI:10.14738/dafs.125.17655.
Liu, X. (2024). Supply Side Deficiency and Policy Direction for Enhancing Food and Nutrition Security in the United States. Discoveries
in Agriculture and Food Sciences, 12(5). 42-52.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Supply Side Deficiency and Policy Direction for Enhancing Food
and Nutrition Security in the United States
Xuanli Liu
Department of Agricultural Science College of Agriculture,
Family Science and Technology Fort Valley State University, United States
ABSTRACT
The U.S. government has put enormous resources into improving food and nutrition
security. In the past twenty years, Federal spending on food and nutrition programs
increased steadily and it reached a historical level of $166.4 billion in 2023.
However, the outcomes of those efforts fell far short of the public’s expectation [1].
About 13.8% of American households were troubled by food and nutrition
insecurity and adults and adolescent obesity has emerged as a serious public health
concern. The US healthcare costs totaled $4.5 trillion in 2023, an average of $13,493
per capita, which, if not all, were largely tied to diet-related diseases. Drawing on
the rich literature, government reports, and various data sources, this investigation
identified some crucial issues less addressed in the discussion of food and nutrition
security. Focused on the supply side, the study found that an array of deficiencies
associated with imbalanced healthy food production, small farms, marketing
channels, the Federal farming subsidies programs, and the provision of nutrient- dense food at the U.S. restaurant. Strategic solutions and policy directions were
suggested for reinvigorating the supply of nutrient-dense and healthy food
products through the lens of tailoring to the needs and benefits of small fruit and
vegetable producers.
Keywords: Food and nutrition security, Small farms, Healthy food, Crop insurance,
Agricultural Programs, Agricultural subsides.
INTRODUCTION
Food and nutrition security mean consistent availability, access, and affordability of healthy,
safe, and affordable foods essential to optimal health and well-being [2]. The US government
opted for combining food security and nutrition security together, that is food and nutrition
security. A concurrently held argument by many countries and professionals in the field is to
separate food security from nutrition security [3,4 5,6,7,8]. This investigation keeps using the
terminology of “food and nutrition security” within the context of the manuscript, but we are
leaning toward perceiving it as a process that are morphing from food security to nutrition
security in the United States.
For years, the US government has spent billions of dollars to increase food and nutrition
security through putting in place many programs to advance the equity on food consumptions.
Millions of American households have benefited from the programs. Nevertheless, food and
nutrition insecurity remain a problem plaguing the U.S. government and the omnipresent
threat of the insecurity can be seen in various anomalies. In 2023, about 13.4% of American
household still had trouble in providing sufficient food for their members. At the same time, the
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Liu, X. (2024). Supply Side Deficiency and Policy Direction for Enhancing Food and Nutrition Security in the United States. Discoveries in Agriculture
and Food Sciences, 12(5). 42-52.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/dafs.125.17655
incidence of obesity in the United States has stayed high. The data from the National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2017-2018 showed more than 2 in 5 adults (42.4%)
have obesity and 1 in 5 children and adolescents ages 2 to 19 (19.3%) have obesity [8]. Obesity,
of course, is driven by many factors, but an unsecured nutrition intake is certainly one of the
crucial contributors. In addition, coming with improper diet are the high incidence of coronary
heart disease, cancer, stroke, osteoarthritis and osteoporosis, and diabetes. The phenomenon
become self-evident given the data have persistently shown that most Americans’ diets fall
short of national recommendations [9,10,11,12]. Being one of the richest counties, the United
States remains challenged by both hunger and healthcare from food and nutrition insecurity.
Why did food and nutrition security fall short of the expectation of the public despite enormous
resources having been diverted into many federal programs? What are the major deficiencies
in the path of transition from food security to nutrition security? What actions should be taken
to expedite accomplishing the objective of nutrition security in the foreseeable future? Those
are the questions that need to be fully addressed and certainly are of interest to this study. A
brief review of the status quo of food and nutrition security practices helps untangle the
impacts of diverse drivers, a novel perspective on the provision of healthy food highlights the
pragmatic food policy direction, and the discussion and suggestions for facilitate the transition
from nutrition precarity to security will flesh out more specific action details tailoring to the
needs of major stakeholders along the food supply chain in the United States.
FOOD PROGRAMS AND RESOURCES ALLOCATED
USDA has wrestled for decades with building a safety net for millions of Americans who were
food-insecure via providing children and low-income people access to food, a healthful diet, and
nutrition education. Massive Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) programs encompasses child
nutrition programs, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and emergency
food assistance programs. Child Nutrition Programs are composed of National School Lunch
Program, School Breakfast Program, Child and Adult Care Food Program, Summer Food Service
Program and Fresh Fruit. The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) is a major
avenue of nutrition assistance for millions of low-income households. The program enhanced
purchasing power of low-income households and made it possible for them to buy healthy and
nutrient dense foods at various markets across the country they otherwise may not be able to
buy.
In addition, an array of FNS Food Distribution Programs distribute USDA-purchased food to
school children and low-income families, emergency feeding, Indian reservations, and the
elderly, provides another layer of pretention for the nutrition need of underserved
demographic groups.
Apart from the Federal programs administered by FNS, the Center for Nutrition Policy and
Promotion (CNPP) has been working on a dynamic dietary guidance that exposed the nutrition
needs to best evidence-based scientific research. The guidance is aimed to provide all
consumers with advice and information on what they should have in their dietary intake.
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The commitment to the programs above is tied to a large federal funding. The figure 1 below
displayed that, billions of dollars were spent in the past 50 years on subsiding the nutrient
intake of American households and there was an uptrend of spending with a significant increase
in recent years.
Figure 1: Federal SNAP spending, in millions 2023 dollars
Sources: Pew Research Center analysis of data from USDA food and nutrition service
The informative details of federal spending on nutrition were unfolded in the outlay of the 2018
Farm Bill in Table1[9]. The twelve titles in Farm Bill ushered in a wide spectrum of policies
related to food and agricultural production. Nutrition program’s budget share tops all others
with a percentage as high as 76.1% and the projected outlay reaches more than $326 billion in
the five years from 2019 to 2023. While there is no automatic reconsideration during the span
of the Farm Act, Congress can alter mandatory-funding levels at any time if needed, which
means the real costs could be higher than the funds appropriated in the Farm Bill.
Table 1: Outlays under the 2018 Farm Act, 2019-2023
Farm Bill Titles Projected Outlays (millions of dollars) % of Total
Nutrition 326,020 76.1%
Crop Insurance 38,010 8.9%
Commodities 31,440 7.3%
Conservation 29,270 6.8%
Other 3,543 0.8%
Total 428,283 100.0%
UNPROMISING OUTCOMES ACHIEVED
In the wake of years’ effort, the U.S. remains a country of the highest healthcare costs in the
world. In 2022, U.S. healthcare spending reached $4.5 trillion, an average of $13,493 per capita,
which doubled the average costs of healthcare in all other wealthy countries.
The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2017-2018 also showed a
gloomy result of nutrition insecurity. Among population groups in the U.S., one in three adults
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Liu, X. (2024). Supply Side Deficiency and Policy Direction for Enhancing Food and Nutrition Security in the United States. Discoveries in Agriculture
and Food Sciences, 12(5). 42-52.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/dafs.125.17655
(30.7%) are overweight, more than two in five adults (42.4%) have obesity, and one in eleven
adults (9.2%) have severe obesity; for children and adolescents, one in six children and
adolescents ages 2 to 19 (16.1%) are overweight, almost 1 in 5 children and adolescents ages
2 to 19 (19.3%) have obesity, and one in sixteen children and adolescents ages 2 to 19 (6.1%)
have severe obesity [8].
Poor diet of American households is a leading cause of high healthcare costs, obesity, and other
diseases. An upsetting pattern in American dietary was revealed in a study of the National
Cancer Institute: Three out of four Americans don’t eat a single piece of fruit in a day, and nine
out of ten don’t reach the minimum recommended daily intake of vegetables. On a weekly basis,
96 percent of Americans don’t reach the minimum for greens (three servings a week for adults),
98 percent don’t reach the minimum for orange vegetables (two servings a week), and 99
percent don’t reach the minimum for whole grains (about three to four ounces a day). Nearly
the entire U.S. population consumes a diet that is not on par with recommendations of American
dynamic dietary guidance published by the CNPP [10, 12]. A CDC fruit and vegetable intake
survey found only 13.3% respondents in the U.S. meet recommendations for fruit consumption,
10.4% of respondents meet recommendations for vegetable consumption [13]
A similar adverse result was also reflected in the Dietary Quality Index, which measures the
percentage of calories people derive from nutrient-rich, unprocessed plant foods on a scale of
0 to 100. The higher the score, the lower the risk of obesity and high blood pressure. The
American diet got a rate around ten [12], which is deviated farm from being nutrition security.
The evidence above displayed a disturbing pattern of American diet, induced health problem,
and the concurrent high social costs. The U.S. still fell short of food and nutrition security.
DEFICIENCIES ON THE SUPPLY CHAIN
The massive government programs and enormous federal supports did not bring about the
expected results in improving dietary pattern and healthy status of Americans, which may
partially attribute to insufficient effort on the supply side. While it is imperative to stimulate
consumption, the production and supply of nutrient dense products is also worth more
attention and resources. Currently, nutrient food production, availability, distribution,
marketing channels, and the Federal subsides programs have emerged on the top list of issues
that need to be fully addressed in the United States.
Availability
The availability of nutrient dense and healthy foods in the United States remains a problem. On
the one hand, the supply data from the Economic Research Service (ERS) of the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (USDA) revealed substantial nutrient dense foods available in the marketplaces.
The data in 2016 showed the American food supply chain offered a per capita annual total of
165 pounds of vegetables and 117 pounds of fruit. On the other hand, nutrition dense and
healthy food production were produced in a quite unbalanced pattern across states. The top
ten states produced 79 percent of U.S. vegetable in 2017, with California alone accounting for
42 percent. Four of the top U.S. counties in vegetables production are in California, with
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Monterey County accounting for 14 percent of the U.S. total, which means more vegetable sales
than any state except California [14].
Another pitfall of nutrient and healthy food supply comes with vegetable varieties. In 2017, of
all major vegetables on the market, potatoes ranked first in terms of harvested acres, 1,133,128,
topping all other vegetables for both the fresh market (535,792 acres) and the processing
(597,336 acres) categories. If sweet corn and sweet potatoes were countered in, then the total
acreages of the three add up to 1,802,207 acres, which is larger than the total of all other
vegetables, 1,594,085 acres. It is hardly unnoticeable that the level of vegetable supply and
consumption was inflated by potatoes, sweet potatoes, and sweet corn. The consensus on
whether potato, sweet potato, and sweet corn are vegetable or fruit is not reached yet among
experts and consumers. “A potato is not a vegetable from a nutrition point of view,” Lilian
Cheung, lecturer of nutrition at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, tells CNBC Make
It. “Potatoes almost behave like a refined carbohydrate. It increases your blood sugar” [15].
Table 2: The U.S. Vegetable Production
Varieties Harvest Acres
Potatoes 1,133,128
Sweet corn 496,096
Lettuce 342,965
Tomatoes 335,348
Snap beans 219,373
Sweet potatoes 172,983
Onions, dry 163,982
Green peas 147,791
Broccoli 135,185
Watermelons 129,790
Cucumbers 119,655
Similar concerns were also raised about sweet corn. The contribution of sweet corn and
potatoes to hydrocarbon intake should not be ignored even when we view them as vegetables
rich in some nutrient contents like other vegetables.
Policy Deficiency in Supporting Nutrient Dense Food Production
The short supply of fruit vegetables is rooted deeply in the lack of Federal Program support. As
revealed in table 1, the 2018 Farm Bill distributed about $38,010 million dollars to crop
insurance and $31,440 million dollars to commodity programs. However, the lions’ share of the
funding mainly benefited a few staple crops in a few states. Farmers in just 10 states reaped
almost two-thirds of all payments. Three-fourths of the payments went to four crops: corn,
soybeans, wheat and cotton. And 34% of total crop insurance payouts were claimed by corn
growers. Consequently, monocultures of inherently high-risk operation maximize efficiency in
pursuit of yields at the explicit cost of necessary diversifications. In pursuit of efficiency, the
farm safety net has consistently shifted towards large farms with less interest in producing
nutrient dense and healthy products and less interest in organic production, which tourns out
to be the urgent need of American households for their healthier lives.
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Liu, X. (2024). Supply Side Deficiency and Policy Direction for Enhancing Food and Nutrition Security in the United States. Discoveries in Agriculture
and Food Sciences, 12(5). 42-52.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/dafs.125.17655
Lingering Farmers Markets
Farmers markets conventionally functioned as the major market channels for small farms to
sell their products. Small farms normally feature small quantities of products, lack of
temperature control transportation, and unfavorable supplier for large retailers, hence they
intend to market their products in local farmers’ markets. However, farmers markets normally
are outdoors, typically consisting of booths, tables, and stands, where neither permanent
building structure nor shelter for winds and rains are available, let along air conditioners that
contemporary consumers take for granted. Consequently, farmers markets will never be in a
position to be a consistent supplier and provide consumers with a reliable purchasing venue.
USDA did have a few policies to improve access to local farmers markets and the enrollment in
the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) is one of supports. Nevertheless, its
growth and development were imperiled due to the lack of long-term planning and effective
implementation of the grant-supported research discoveries for years. Just believing in and
relying on free market are less likely to build up farmers markets that could play an effective
role in consistently providing American consumer with fresh and healthier local products.
Insufficient Support for Small Farms
Small farms proved themselves an efficient business form for local, fresh, and healthy produce
production. In 2023, there were 1.9 million small farms in the United States, but the subsides
and other federal funds they claimed are very limited. As demonstrated in fig 2 Below, farmers
below 50% of crop sale quantiles only got 2.9% of federal subsidies, and farms below 80% crop
sales quantiles got 23.3% of federal subsidies, while those farms in the top quantile from 80-
100% obtained 76.7% of federal subsidies. This extremely uneven distribution of federal
subsidies partially explained why small farms are in a quite disadvantaged position in farming
and market competition.
Figure 2: Percentage Share of Total Crop Insurance Subsides by Crop Sale Quantiles, Average
2012-19
Source: National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition
Owing to the limited access to major federal programs, most small producers were largely in a
persistent mode of production. Most small farmers have off-farming jobs to generate
nonfarming income and farming income is never their major revenue source. Consequently,
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produce at farm level is not kept in a consistent and stabilized way. To empower small farms to
increase their investment in producing nutrient dense fruit and vegetables, the effective
support should go through new technology subsides, such as organic production, high Tunnel,
hydroponic farming, and climate smart operations and practices.
Limited Availability at Restaurants
A restaurant is never a place for ordinary consumers to obtain healthy and nutrient-intense
food in the U.S. The most convenient place to have nutrient dense foods such as vegetables and
fruits should be home [16, 17, 18]. However, dining out is an integral part of American culture.
They are used to eating out and will continue to do so in the future [19, 20, 21] (13, 14, 31).
About 74% say they don’t feel like cooking, 51% find dining out convenient, 44% dine out to
socialize. Americans spend a monthly average of $166 per person going out to eat. The most
popular restaurants consumers prefer to take out are fast food 60%. Those restaurants will be
less likely to find more vegetables [22]. Vegetables and fruits are certainly not the dish of Chefs’
favor due to their features as bulky materials, demand for restrictive storage conditions, the
short shelf life, and susceptible to spoilage. At a normal restaurant, the 80:20 rule or Pareto
Principle leads to their removal from the Manu list. For people of low income, the reality is that
fat, salt and sugar taste great and their choice will be simple for junk foods, which takes the
edge off hunger and is cheaper than eating a healthy, balanced meal. For middle class
households, the habit of eating out place them in an eating environment, which provide limited
choices even they prefer to have healthier dishes.
Between fast food restraint on every corner and grocery shelves stuffed with processed foods,
making healthy food choices in America isn’t easy. However, the regulation on providing
healthy food is so limited and not the direction many policies makers and even food science
professionals intend to go. Nevertheless, it is the time to seek out what and how to do ensure
healthier food supply in the huge restaurant industry.
Whole Foods Fallacies
A well tested and widely accepted retail channel for nutrient dense, organic, and healthier foods
in the U.S. is Whole Food. Nevertheless, it turns out to be a shop for the top layer of rich
American. It has gotten the nickname of "Whole Paycheck." Shopping at Whole Foods could lead
to a much bigger payment for the same food buck. Even for middle class household, what they
normally do to steer clear of Whole Foods. For many households, especially lower income and
subserved household groups, Whole Foods will just not be an option.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Food and nutrient security are a long-term challenge for all countries. Many drivers on both the
supply sides and demand sides contributed to the status quo and any changes, if they mean to
advance food and nutrient security, will be very difficult and demanding. There is no easy
solution if you just resort to the function of free market. In a rich country like the United States,
the objective of get rid of absolute poverty has been largely accomplished at least not much are
needed from the supply sides. However, to meet the expectation of nutrition security, more
factors kick in and the process turns out to be more complex, there will be a long way to go, and
both supply and demand sides have large room of improvement and service enrichment. This
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Liu, X. (2024). Supply Side Deficiency and Policy Direction for Enhancing Food and Nutrition Security in the United States. Discoveries in Agriculture
and Food Sciences, 12(5). 42-52.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/dafs.125.17655
investigation just highlighted the problems and possible paths to go through from the supply
side of nutrient dense foods. The discussion above did insinuate the direction of policies, if not
the solutions, to advance nutrition security in the United States.
First, there is an urgent need to further stimulate the production of heathy food. Fruit and
vegetable production should get more consideration in the federal stimulation policies. Current
stimulation of commodity programs and insurance programs largely spent money on
benefiting staple grain production, which relieved the calorie food supply and largely
eliminated absolute poverty in the U.S. It is time to have a slow but steady support for vegetable
and fruit production. Since fruit and vegetable production is largely produced by small farms,
the value of consumption will normally spill over time in the future. To reduce the transaction
cost of stimulating produce production, the process needs to be enhanced by incorporating
farms coop, vertical integration, and community agricultural support etc. Doing so will engage
more small farmers in fruit and vegetable production and take into consideration of future
values of healthy food consumption. The process itself will counteract the longevity imbalance
in vegetable production across states, so the imbalance in supply of healthy food across
geographic locations will be solved.
Secondly, empower small farms in the transition from a persistent farming business to a vibrant
and viable business. Small farms have considerable advantages in producing nutrient dense
and healthy food. Any way of empowering small farms will lead to more fruit and vegetable
produced. To get small farms engaged in producing healthier food, the following channels need
to be imbedded in agriculture stimulating programs. The support for farmers coops, contract
production, and vertical integration should grip considerable attention in policy making and
funds appropriation. Doing so will engage more small farmers in fruit and vegetable production
counteract the longevity imbalance in vegetable production across states, so a balanced supply
of healthy food across geographic locations will be more likely to be achieved soon.
Thirdly, build up modern farmers markets and food catering to the need of local consumers.
Effective marketing channel is a critical component for the success of all business. Small farm
business is not an exemption. Currently, most farmers markets failed to attract customers for
poor environment, seasonality, and even irregular closure. To make farmers markets an
effective channel for local producers and key purchase destination of local consumers,
governments need to partner with local communities to build farmers market hub, which
equipped with contemporary facility and become a reliable destination for local fresh products
even out of season. It is vitally important to be aware that the investment in farm markets may
not get a decent return in the short run. The spillovers and large social benefits may not be
easily internalized and claimed by any specific agent. Given its role in activating small farms
and in bolstering healthy food availability, the long run social benefits be worth the serious
consideration and financial support.
Fourthly, regulate restaurant business to enhance access to healthier food, especially variety of
fruits and vegetables. The Standard American Diet (SAD) is packed with processed foods, fast
foods, added sugars, and sodium. Some common foods in the SAD diet: Packaged foods filled
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with artificial flavors and colors, fried foods, red meat, processed meats (deli meat, cold cuts,
bacon, etc.), sugar-laden baked goods (cakes, cookies, etc.), refined grains (white bread, white
pasta, white rice, etc.), sugar-sweetened drinks (soda, sports drinks, fruit drinks, flavored coffee
drinks, etc.), and dairy [23]. Restaurant business is one of major contributor to the current SAD
diet.
USDA dietary guidelines suggested that half of your plate should consist of fruits and veggies,
with a quarter of whole grains, and a quarter lean protein. Low-fat dairy is on the side. The
reality is that the recommendation did not change much in Americans diet.
Fruits and veggies are nutritional powerhouses. But Americans don’t eat enough of them.
Given the significant discrepancy between SAD and USDA recommendations, something must
be done to mitigate the avoidable nutrition insecure in American diet. Stimulating the supply
of fruits and vegetables and levy tax on unhealthy foods (refined grains and sweets, potatoes,
red meat, processed meat) and beverages (sugary drinks) are the possible policy practices to
avoid the status quo that healthy foods such as fruits, veggies, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and
seeds are largely forgotten in the most important daily food supplier, restaurants.
Further Evidence and Future Work
Food and nutrition security are a tough and long-term challenges for all countries in the world.
Many factors kicked in and drove the complex process. There is not easy solution from all
angles. This investigation kept the focus on the supply side of nutrient dense and healthy food.
The real process or the effort to finding solution certainly need to include many factors on
demand side, American consumption behavior, as well as many other social, cultural, and
economic factors. Fortunately, there have been a large body of literatures in the area not
covered in this investigation. The author will certainly expand the investigation and have
demand side factors and consumer behavior included in our future research.
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