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Discoveries in Agriculture and Food Sciences - Vol. 11, No. 6
Publication Date: December 25, 2023
DOI:10.14738/dafs.116.15544.
Uyamadu, E. A., Sridhar, M., Ana, G., & Morakinyo, O. (2023). Occupational Health Hazards and Injuries Among Fish Smokers in the
Gambia Fishing Communities. Discoveries in Agriculture and Food Sciences, 11(6). 01-14.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Occupational Health Hazards and Injuries Among Fish Smokers in
the Gambia Fishing Communities
Evelyn Anuli Uyamadu
Department of Public and Environmental Health, School of
Medicine and Allied Health Science, The University of the
Gambia
Mynepali Sridhar
Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Faculty of
Public Health, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Godson Ana
Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Faculty of
Public Health, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Oyewale Morakinyo
Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Faculty of
Public Health, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Fish smoking has now spread throughout the world and is now a highly common
method of preserving fish. The Occupational Health Hazards and injuries among
fish smokers in the Gambia fishing communities was investigated. Simple random
sampling technique was used in the selection of 52 fish smokers from the two study
communities. Focus group discussion and interviewer-administered
questionnaires were used to collect data on the various hazards and injuries
common among them. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Packagefor Social
Sciences (SPSS 20.0). Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data. An
analytical statistic test was used to test for association using the chi-square at a 95%
significant level. The majority of the fish smokers are married and within the age
range of 31-48years.The physical hazards reported were minor cuts(51.2% and
88.9%); fish bites (72.1% and 77.8%); fish stings(75.9% and 66.7%); heat and
cold(58.1% and 100.0%); minor head injury(72.1% and 88.9%). For biological
hazards, 67.4% and 66.7% reported parasitic infections, 100.0%, and 100.0%
reported smoke from the smokehouse as the main chemical hazard. Several, 72.1%
and 88.9% reported internal injuries as their major ergonomic hazard. Common
perceived injuries sustained during fish smoking among Tanji and Banjul fish
smokers were cuts and lacerations (91.1% and 100%); bruises (82.2% and 77.8%);
muscle strains and pains (86.7% and 88.9%); sting from fish spines (71.1% and
100%) and puncture wounds (57.8% and 88.9%). The mean CO of the outdoor fish
smoking Environment in Tanji and Banjul were 381.0±154.4 and 436.0±266.8. The
mean Indoor CO value in Tanji was 390±350.9. However, in Banjul the mean value
was zero. Comparison of the mean outdoor CO values of fish smoking environment
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Discoveries in Agriculture and Food Sciences (DAFS) Vol 11, Issue 6, December- 2023
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
in Tanji and Banjul revealed no significant difference (P=0.60). However, a
comparison of mean indoor CO levels for the fish smoking environment in Tanji and
Banjul was significantly different (P<0.001). Therefore, it is recommended that all
fish smokers receive thorough training on the dangers and risks specific to their
line of work and the need to practice safety.
Keywords: Occupational hazards, injuries, fish smokers, The Gambia
INTRODUCTION
Fish smoking is the oldest and most popular form of fish processing, in which the fish is dried
using heat from a fire. Adeyeye et al (2015) revealed that it contributes significantly to
household food and financial stability. According to Kolawole, et al (2010), through indigenous
knowledge, for ages, mankind has used salting, frying, sun-drying, and smoking as methods of
preventing fish spoilage all around the world.
Traditional fish processing methods such as salting, smoking, and sun-drying make fish
available, affordable, and in high demand, guarantee protein, and food security, and hence
promote good nutrition, health, and general well-being of people. Smoke-exposed foods are
healthier, with lower levels of saturated fatty acids and higher omega-3/-6 ratios, which are
beneficial for lowering coronary heart disease (CHD) in people who eat them (Akintola et al
2013). Also, Akintola et al (2013), Akintola (2015), indicated that smoking raises the contents
of some amino acids in fish.
Smoking preserves fish by dehydrating the fish and introducing natural anti-microbial
constituents such as phenols to the fish. It is better than other methods because it does not only
dehydrate the fish but also removes some fats from the fish and hence reduces microbial
growth. Once this is done, the life span of some fish products will be extended to a couple of
weeks. In recent times smoking is used not only to preserve fish but also to improve the taste
and the appearance of fish. (Akintola and Fakoya, 2017).
Long working durations and spending many years smoking fish can harm the health of women
processors. Salvi et al (2014) revealed that smoke was a contributing factor to several
respiratory conditions. It has been found that women fish smokers are more prone to
developing COPD than non-fish smokers. (Umoh and Etete, 2014). Umoh and Okoko, (2014)
also revealed that smoke can cause health conditions such as redness of the eyes, poor vision,
rashes, and eczema.
Fish smokers may work 24 hours a day depending on the availability of fish. The smoke
produced by the combustion of biomass fuels is a major cause of asthma, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), especially in children and the elderly, as well as lung cancer.
(Kodgule, et al, 2012).
Agbebi (2018) in his study revealed that “The most common occupational hazards were
redness and swelling of the eyes, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, stress-related health
problems, the sting from fish spines, knife cuts, and snake bites while fetching firewood
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Uyamadu, E. A., Sridhar, M., Ana, G., & Morakinyo, O. (2023). Occupational Health Hazards and Injuries Among Fish Smokers in the Gambia Fishing
Communities. Discoveries in Agriculture and Food Sciences, 11(6). 01-14.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/dafs.116.15544
(physical), parasitic and pathogenic infection (biological), hazards from disinfectants used
(chemical), ergonomic hazards such as fractures and dislocations, long work hours, and high
mental demand (psychological).
These fish smokers are exposed to carbon monoxide together with other poisonous gases
during the smoking process. Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning has been linked to both acute
and long-term health impacts, and it may be responsible for up to half of all poisonings
worldwide. Severe carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning reduces the amount of oxygen transported
by the blood to tissues over time by forming carboxyhemoglobin. To compensate for the
reduced oxygen content, the body responds by boosting cardiac output and pumping more
blood. Decompensation occurs when the maximal cardiac output is achieved and the myoglobin
in the heart muscle becomes poisoned, resulting in a catastrophic drop in cardiac output and
loss of consciousness. This could harm the brain, heart, or other tissues; also, after rescue and
re-oxygenation, a secondary cerebral reperfusion injury could develop. (Brian et al, 2011).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Areas
This study was conducted in Tanji and Banjul town in The Gambia, along the Atlantic coast.
Tanji Village (also known as Tanjeh or Tanje) is located on the Atlantic Ocean beach in the
northern section of the Kombo South District, West Coast Region of The Gambia. The village is
the most populated district in the Local Gambia Authority, with a population of 14,531
inhabitants based on the 2013 Census (GBoS, 2013 census). It is also known as the Tanji Fishing
Village and lies at 30 kilometers from Banjul, the capital city, and 12 kilometers southwest of
Kololi resort, on the Kombo Coastal Road. Tanji is dominated by three ethnic groups: Mandinka,
Wolof, Jola, and Serer. The latter is mostly a fishing community, while the former is primarily a
farming, crafts, and petty commerce community. The town center is around 1 kilometer from
the main fishing area. There were 1,230 head fishermen across the country (2016 Frame
Survey). There are over D2000 people engaged in various fishing activities in Tanji. Most of the
fishermen are from other countries in West Africa from Senegalese, Malians, Guineans, Sierra
Leoneans, and Ghanaians. Various categories of fresh fish traders exist including males and
females.
Banjul, which is the capital city of the Gambia was originally called Bathurst and has a
population of 31,301(GBoS, 2013 census). However, the population of the Greater Banjul Area,
which includes the City of Banjul and the Kanifing Municipal Council, is estimated to be 413,397
people (according to the 2013 census, GBoS, 2013 census). Banjul is situated on St Mary's Island
(Banjul Island), near the mouth of the Gambia River, where it meets the Atlantic Ocean. Bridges
connect the island to the mainland to the west and the rest of the Greater Banjul Area. Ferries
connect Banjul to the mainland on the other side of the river.
Study Design and Sampling Method
A community-based cross-sectional study was used. Data was collection using both qualitative
and quantitative methods among fish smokers (both male and female) in the selected
communities. Forty-three respondents were randomly selected from Tanji and 9 from Banjul
communities.
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Discoveries in Agriculture and Food Sciences (DAFS) Vol 11, Issue 6, December- 2023
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Data Collection Method
A mixed-method (qualitative and quantitative) of data collection was adopted and two different
types of instruments were used. They were:
Focus Group Discussions: Four (4) FGD sessions were conducted using focus group discussion
guide These included two of each of male and female groups of youths and adults fish smokers.
About 8-10 participants were selected for each of the FGD that was conducted in the
community. Convenient places such as under shades and places without distractions were used
for the conduct of the FGD. The FGD was conducted to get more insight into the research topic
and also helped to accumulate clearer information on fish smoking and the health risks of this
occupation. The findings from the FGD were recorded and used to improve the quality of the
draft questionnaire before finally used for data collection.
Questionnaire: A semi-structured questionnaire was developed based on the extensive
literature review and findings from FGD in consultation with the supervisors. Research
assistants were trained to collect the data from selected fish smokers within the community
using the face-to-face interview. The questions were read out to the respondents and
explanation provided whenever it is necessary. The interview was conducted in Mandinka,
Serere, and Wolof being the major language spoken by most of the residents of the study site.
The data collection was supervised by the researcher.
Before the commencement of the questionnaire administration, permission was first sought
from the two fishing community leaders and then from the leaders of the fish smokers who
helped to mobilize their members. Fish smokers start their work from10 am upwards and
questionnaire administration was done at that time. It took about 10 minutes to administration
each questionnaire and it was done at the respondents' sites of activity
Data Analysis
The open-ended questions were also given a code and later entered into the computer using
SPSS software version 22 and Stata13.0. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistic and Chi- square test at P<0.05
RESULTS
Sociodemographic Features of the Respondents
The socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents are shown in Table 1. Majority of the
fish smokers in Tanji were within the age range of 31-48 while those in Banjul were within 13-
30 years age range. Several 58.1 %, in Tanji were males, and 55.6% in Banjul were females and
several were married. Gambian, 69.8% and 55.6% is the major ethnicity among Tanji and
Banjul. Several respondents in Tanji were Mandinka (65.1%) while 55.6% in Banjul were
Wollof. Madarasa (an informal education) was the main educational qualification among 44.2%
in Tanji. The monthly income was between D1000 to D10,000 Dalasis (Gambia Currency;
USD20 to 200) among the respondents in Banjul. Also, majority 100% (Tanji) and 60.0%
(Banjul) spent about 9 to 16 hours a day at work.
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Uyamadu, E. A., Sridhar, M., Ana, G., & Morakinyo, O. (2023). Occupational Health Hazards and Injuries Among Fish Smokers in the Gambia Fishing
Communities. Discoveries in Agriculture and Food Sciences, 11(6). 01-14.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/dafs.116.15544
Table 1: Socio-demographic features of the fish smokers
Variables Tanji (43) Freq Percent Banjul (9) Freq Percent
Age
13-30 8 18.6 6 66.7
31-48 25 58.1 3 33.3
>49 10 23.3 0 0.0
Sex
Male 25 58.1 4 44.4
Female 18 41.9 5 55.6
Marital Status
Single 5 11.6 4 44.4
Married 34 79.1 5 55.6
Divorce 0 0.0 0 0.0
Widow 4 9.3 0 0.0
Nationality
Gambian 30 69.8 5 55.6
Senegalese 10 23.3 4 44.4
Gunean 1 2.3 0 0.0
Sierra Leonean 2 4.7 0 0.0
Ethnicity
Mandinka 28 65.1 1 11.1
Fula 6 14 1 11.1
Wollof 2 4.7 5 55.6
Jola 6 14 1 11.1
Serere 7 16.3 1 11.1
Others 0 0.0 0 0.0
Educational Status
Primary 14 32.6 1 11.1
Secondary 6 14.0 3 33.3
Tertiary 4 9.3 3 33.3
Madarasa 19 44.2 2 22.2
Income Level
<D1000 24 55.8 0 0.0
D1000-10000 16 37.2 9 100.0
D11000-20000 3 7.0 0 0.0
>D20000 0 0.0 0 0.0
Duration of activity
0-16 43 100.0 6 60.0
17-33 0 0.0 3 40.0
119+ 0 0.0 0 0.0
Health Hazards Related to Fish Smoking: Data from FGD
Fish smokers from the two communities disclosed that the job exposes them to a lot of health
hazards such as eye redness and watery discharge due to smoke, dehydration and unusual
flaking of skin due to too much exposure to heat from the fire used in smoking. Some of the
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Discoveries in Agriculture and Food Sciences (DAFS) Vol 11, Issue 6, December- 2023
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participants stressed further that they usually experience general body pain, common cold that
results sometimes from the smoke and difficulty in breathing and swallowing. Some of the
typical statements are shown below;
• “I am drastically affected by smoke always which leads to eye redness and watery
discharge”. (Tanji fish smoker)
• “Too much of heat from the fire is another issue leading to dehydration and unusual
flaking of skin “(Banjul fish smoker)
• “My problem is pain and redness of the eyes due to smoke”. (Banjul fish smoker)
• “I used to have a Common cold that results sometimes from the smoke, Difficulty in
breathing and swallowing”. (Tanji fish smoker
Health Hazards Among the Fish Smokers in the Two Communities:
Among the fish smokers, the physical hazards reported were minor cuts (51.2% and 88.9%);
fish bites (72.1% and 77.8%); fish stings (75.9% and 66.7%); heat and cold (58.1% and
100.0%); minor head injury (72.1% and 88.9%). For biological hazards, 67.4% and 66.7%
reported parasitic infections, 100.0%, and 100.0% reported smoke from the smokehouse as the
main chemical hazard. Several, 72.1% and 88.9% reported internal injuries as their major
ergonomic hazard. In Banjul, the majority 88.4% reported prolonging work hours as their main
psychological hazard. Table 2
Table 2: Reported hazards among the fish smokers in the two communities
Variables Tanji (43) Freq Percent Banjul (9) Freq Percent
Physical hazards
Minor cuts 22 51.2 8 88.9
Bites 31 72.1 7 77.8
Stings 29 67.4 6 66.7
Rough sea/Wind 0 0.0 0 0.0
Heat and cold 25 58.1 9 100.0
Eye injury 9 21.0 6 66.7
Falls/accidents 10 23.3 2 22.2
Minor head injury 31 72.1 8 88.9
Noise from engine 0 0.0 0 0.0
Aggressive Customers 10 23.3 77.8
Biological hazards
Parasites(leeches) 29 67.4 6 66.7
Pathogen 30 69.8 4 44.4
Chemical hazards
Smoke from Engine/smoke house 43 100 9 100.0
Disinfectant 19 44.2 5 55.6
Ergonomic hazards
Internal injuries 31 72.1 8 88.9
Broken bones or Dislocations 4 9.3 0 0.0
Back Strain 31 72.1 6 66.7
Psychological hazards
Prolong work 38 88.4 0 0.0
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Comparison of the mean outdoor CO values of fish smoking environment in Tanji and Banjul
revealed no significant difference (P=0.60) Table 5 However, a comparison of mean indoor CO
levels for the fish smoking environment in Tanji and Banjul was significantly different
(P<0.001). Table 6.
Table 4: CO levels obtained in the Tanji and Banjul Environment (ppm)
Variables Tanji
Mean CO
Banjul
Mean CO
Fish smoking environment
Outdoor CO 381.0±158.4 436.0±266.8
Indoor CO 390.6±350.9 00
Table 5: Comparing outdoor CO levels of fish smoking environments (FSE) in Tanj and
Banjul
Variable Mean Standard error 95% Confidence intervals P-value
Tanji 381 55.99 248.61 513.39 0.60
Banjul 436.04 64.71 266.83 298.84
Difference -55.04 102.50 -267.08 157.01
P-value not statistically significant, indicating no difference between Tanji and Banjul
Table 6: Comparing indoor CO levels of fish smoking environments (FSE) in Tanji and
Banjul
Variable Mean Standard error 95% Confidence intervals P-value
Tanji 390.62 71.63 242.45 538.79 <0.001
Banjul 0 0 0 0
Difference 390.62 71.63 246.44 534.80
P-value is statistically significant. Please note that Banjul has no CO measurement
DISCUSSION
Fish smoking is an activity with lots of hazards that need to be tackled because of the
implication it has on health. Studies have shown that fish smokers are exposed to harmful
smoke which damages smokers’ eye-sights and also causes lung problems (El-Kurebe A. 2016).
This study reveals that the physical hazards reported among fish smokers were minor cuts
(51.2% and 88.9%); fish bites (72.1% and 77.8%); fish stings (75.9% and 66.7%); heat and cold
(58.1% and 100.0%); minor head injury (72.1% and 88.9%). For biological hazards, 67.4% and
66.7% reported parasitic infections, 100.0%, and 100.0% reported smoke from the
smokehouse as the main chemical hazard. Several, 72.1% and 88.9% reported internal injuries
as their major ergonomic hazard. In Banjul, the majority 88.4% reported prolonging work
hours as their main psychological hazard. Agbebi (2018) in his study on Analysis of
Occupational Hazard of Fish Smoking Among Fisher-Folks in Coastal Areas of Ondo State,
Nigeria revealed that major occupational hazards recorded in the study areas were; redness
and swelling of the eyes which the commonest, chronic obstructive respiratory diseases, stress- related health problems sting from fish spines, knife cuts, snakebites while fetching firewood
(physical), parasitic and pathogenic infection (biological), hazards from disinfectant used
(chemical), broken bones and dislocation, back strain (ergonomic), prolong work hour and high