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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol.7, No.11
Publication Date: November 25, 2020
DOI:10.14738/assrj.711.8830.
Muchunku, J., Nelson, J., & Beatrice, M. (2020). Influence Of Household Income On Retention Among Pupils In Public Day Primary
Schools In Isiolo County, Kenya. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(11) 47-54.
Influence Of Household Income On Retention Among Pupils In Public
Day Primary Schools In Isiolo County, Kenya
Jackson Muchunku
PhD. Candidate, Chuka University, Chuka, Kenya.
Jagero Nelson
PhD., Chuka University, Chuka, Kenya.
Mburugu Beatrice
PhD., Chuka University, Chuka, Kenya.
ABSTRACT
Retention of pupils in primary schools remain a problem in both
developed and developing countries (UNESCO, 2011). Socio-economic
status characteristics of households, in particular parental income have
long been known to be a major determinant of pupils’ retention. The
study used correlation research survey design. The population of the
study consisted of 4142 that comprises of 546 standard seven teachers
and 3594 standard seven pupils in the 91 public day primary schools in
Isiolo County. Class seven pupils in the sampled schools were chosen by
simple random sampling technique from total number of pupils (3594
pupils). A reliability coefficient of 0.91 for the pupils and 0.92 for the
teachers was arrived at. Content validity was ascertained through
experts. This study used inferential statistics to analyze the data that
was obtained. This study yielded data that required both qualitative and
quantitative analysis. Inferential statistics was used to infer sampled
data from the population before drawing conclusions. Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21 aided in data analysis. To
establish the overall relationship between the independent and
dependent variables, regression models were used. Findings reveal that
parental income and pupils’ retention shows positive and significant
results at .05 levels. This implies that pupils’ retention is dependent on
the income of their parents. Based on the summary of the findings, the
household income, was found to be strongly associated with retention
of pupils in public day primary schools in Isiolo County. The major
conclusion that can be deduced from the findings is that, pupil’s
retention in public day primary schools in Isiolo County is strongly
associated with household income.
Key Words: Social Economic Factors, Household Income, Retention, Primary
Schools.
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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol.7, Issue 11, November-2020
INTRODUCTION
Retention of pupils in primary schools remains a problem in both developed and developing
countries (UNESCO, 2011). The Education for All Global Monitoring Report (2010) indicates that 72
million children worldwide are not enrolled in schools. Socio-economic status characteristics of
households, in particular parental income have long been known to be a major determinant of
educational retention. The debate about factors that influence retention in USA has been a
controversial one in the last few decades. In less developed countries, and in particular in India,
children from families with more socio-economic resources are more often enrolled in schools than
children from families with less socio-economic resources (Huisman & Smits, 2009; Mingat, 2007).
Retention of pupils in primary schools is a major challenge to most Governments in the world like
in Sub Saharan Africa. According to UNESCO (2010) it is estimated that more than 30 million pupils
aged 10–14 in sub-Saharan Africa will not complete primary school at the end of the twenty first
century .This exists despite there being a strong correlation between the introduction of Free
Primary Education (FPE) policy and increase in enrolment rates across the country (Oketch, 2008;
Sifuna, 2005). According to Adebola, Anyachebelu and Madu (2012), retention for pupils in public
primary schools have been influenced by a multiple of factors and which are yet to be conclusively
understood.
In Nigeria, there has been an increasing awareness on the interrelated nature of various variables
on pupils’ education such as socioeconomic status and retention (Chikwelu, 2005; Obosede, 2009).
According to Chikwelu and Obosede, it is a general believe that socio-economic status has much to
contribute to the students’ retention. In Uganda, empirical investigations have assessed SES using
measures of three key variables: family income, parents’ educational levels and parents’
occupations (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). However, researches have largely ignored the effect of SES
on both retention and academic achievement.
Kenya is faced with one major challenge: the inability to retain pupils in public primary schools. In
2003, the Government introduced Free Primary Education (FPE) and with it, an extra 1.3 million
children enrolled in public schools, raising the figure from 5.9 million children in 2002 to 7.2 million
in 2003 and 8.6 million in 2010 (Republic of Kenya, 2012). Kariga (2009) and Orodho (2013)
however, established that retention of pupils in education in some Kenyan communities continues
to be undermined by household income. Orodho (2013) and Kariga (2009) views are however not
supported by Rosetti (2000), who noted that the notion that family income influences the ability of
education to improve life circumstances is yet to be confirmed empirically. Therefore, this study
sought to establish whether differences in household income among pupils influence retention of
pupils’ in public day primary schools in Isiolo County.
Isiolo County has low retention in the country (Republic of Kenya, 2012). A report in the Isiolo
County Multiple Indicator Cluster survey (2008) shows that although most children aged 6 -13
years in the County is attending school with a net attendance ratio and retention of 92% about 8
percent of children aged 6-13 are out of school. This may imply that there are unidentified factors
influencing retention which were identified in this study. This study therefore investigated
household income differentials influencing retention among pupils in public day primary schools in
Isiolo County.
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Muchunku, J., Nelson, J., & Beatrice, M. (2020). Influence Of Household Income On Retention Among Pupils In Public Day Primary Schools In Isiolo County,
Kenya. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(11) 47-54.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.711.8830 49
LITERATURE REVIEW
Socio-economic status characteristics of household, in particular household income has been
known to be major determinants of education enrolment in both developing and developed
countries (Mingat, 2008). In USA, it is widely shown that children brought up in less favorable
conditions obtain less education, despite the large financial returns to schooling (Heckman &
Masterov, 2005).
Constantino (2005) examined six communities in the greater Los Angeles, California, area and found
that children in high-income communities had access to significantly more books than children in
low-income communities did. The study also found out that in some affluent communities, children
had more books in their homes than low-income families
Children from low-income families have generally poorer physical health than do their more
affluent peers. In particular, there is a higher incidence of such conditions as asthma, respiratory
infections (Simoes, 2003), tuberculosis, ear infections and hearing loss, and obesity (Wang & Zhang,
2006). Children with no health insurance may receive little or no treatment for illnesses and are far
more likely to die from injuries or infections than are well-off children (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002).
Early health conditions may have significant long-term consequences, even if children’s
socioeconomic status improves later in life (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002). Further, Broadman (2004)
found that a significant portion of health differentials across neighborhoods (high- and low-income)
could be explained by the disparate levels of stress across these neighborhoods. The researcher to
this study adds to this debate by arguing that the greater incidence of health issues among lower- income pupils leads to increased school absences and tardiness rates. As a result, pupils from poor
families are more often likely to miss classes.
In Europe, determining access to education by children, household income is found to be an
important factor. Household income is linked to a range of factors: when children start school, how
often they attend, whether they have to temporarily withdraw and also when and if they drop out
(Glewwe & Chang, 2010).
A study on the School Characteristics, Socio-Economic Status and Culture as Determinants of
Primary School Enrolment in India, Mingat (2002) established that the richest households, 76
percent of their children attend school compared to 40% of the poorest households. This means
that children from poor households have much lower attendance than those from richer
households. Mingat (2002) contends that the level of the family income is one of the most powerful
influences on primary school enrolments rates in the developing countries.
In South Africa, Sibanda (2004) found that household income level attributes are important
determinants of dropping out of primary school pupils.
The enrolment and low retention of children in schools in Uganda has remained a major challenge
particularly for marginalized groups. One of the groups affected by the problem of low enrolment
and retention in schools is the pastoral community (Carr-Hill, 2005). In Uganda, the people of
Karamoja as nomadic pastoralists are particularly affected and many Karimojong school-age
children are out of school or do not complete a full cycle of basic education (Chronic Poverty
Research Centre, 2008).
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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol.7, Issue 11, November-2020
In Kenya, Onyango (2000), in a study on the Effects of Parent’s Education on Children’s Academic
Achievement in Baringo, showed that parental socio-economic background influences their
children’s participation in education. This he contends that is common for the developing countries
where children of the poor families are not provided with adequate educational materials and most
are not apt to enroll in school. And if enrolled, they are more likely to drop out of school than
children who are from better-off families.
The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2001) in Kenya noted that school drop-out;
absenteeism and general truancy is rampant in coffee, miraa and tea picking, cane and sand
harvesting, livestock herding, and fishing regions in Kenya. Some of these practices are common in
Isiolo County. The Ministry of Education laments that although these activities appear to be
supplementing family incomes, they disrupt the normal school routine hindering the syllabus
coverage and consequently learners are not well prepared for the evaluation tests.
METHODOLOGY
The study used correlation research survey design. The study looked at how retention is influenced
by household income and whether there is any relationship between the two. The county has 8% of
the children aged 6-13 years who are out of school according to a report of Isiolo multiple Indicator
Cluster Survey (2008).
The population of the study consisted of 4142 that comprises of 546 standard seven teachers and
3594 standard seven pupils in the 91 public day primary schools in Isiolo County. In addition, the 2
education officers in the sub-counties of Isiolo County were also included in the study.
The current study adopted purposive and simple random sampling techniques. This study used
purposive sampling procedure to select a sample of teachers teaching in standard seven and simple
random sampling for standard seven pupils from the sample of selected schools. Class seven pupils
in the sampled schools were chosen by simple random sampling technique from total number of
pupils (3594 pupils). The two sub-county directors of education in Isiolo County were selected
using purposive sampling method. These were chosen for the study as they are better placed to
provide the data needed for the study in the county. The sample for the teachers was 110, while that
of pupils was 242, and the two sub-county directors of education, a total of 354. The data for this
study was collected using questionnaires for teachers and pupils and interview guide for the
education officers.
Data analysis
This study yielded data that required both qualitative and quantitative analysis. To
establish the overall relationship between the independent and dependent variables in
the Conceptual Framework, the following model was used.
Y1=β0 + β1X1 + ɛ
Where Y1= retention of pupils, β1, = partial regression coefficients. X1= household income levels, ɛ =
Error.
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Muchunku, J., Nelson, J., & Beatrice, M. (2020). Influence Of Household Income On Retention Among Pupils In Public Day Primary Schools In Isiolo County,
Kenya. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(11) 47-54.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.711.8830 51
FINDINGS
Simple linear regression was used to test null hypothesis: Hypothesis HO: Household Income has no
Statistical Significant Influence on Retention of Pupils in Public Day Primary Schools. The simple linear
regression model assumed the form:
Y2= βo + β1HI+ ε.
Where Y =Retention, HI=Household Income and ε= Error Term
This information is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Regression Analysis Results on the Influence of Household Income on Retention of Pupils in
Public Day Primary Schools in Isiolo County.
Outcome Variable: Retention of Pupils, Predictors: (Constant), Household Income (HI)
Table 1 reveals that the ANOVA results are significant at .05 levels from teachers (F=12.821, p=.000)
and pupils (F=9.039, p=0.000). The unstandardized coefficient, B, of household income (HI) is equal
to .332 for teachers and .387 for pupils, implying that a unit change of values of household income,
there is change in the rate of retention of pupils by a factor of .332 and.387 according to teacher and
pupils’ data respectively. The computation of the proportion of the total variance on retention
(coefficient of determination R2) due to household income was R2 =0.793 for teachers and R2
=0.5529 for pupils at .05 levels of significance; implying for example that 79.3% of the variability on
the effect of pupils’ retention can be explained from the level of household income.
The null hypothesis HO12 which stated that Household Income has no Statistical Significant Influence
on retention of Pupils in Public Day Primary Schools was rejected. This implies that the alternative
hypothesis was adopted for example there is linear significant relationship between household
income and retention of pupils in public day primary schools in Isiolo County. This shows that if the
income of the parents is low, then there was a possibility that pupils in Isiolo County public day
primary Schools would remain at home due to lack of the necessary learning materials.
The models that were used to measure the effect of household income on pupils’ retention (Y) was
summarized as;
Y2= .211 + .332HI...................................Teacher
Y2= .329 + .387HI...................................Pupils
Respondent Model
1 R R Square Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of
the Estimate F Change Statistics
Sig. F Change
Teachers .891 .0793 .0771 .2611 12.821 .000
Pupils .770 .5529 .5421 .132 9.039 .000
Respondent Model Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
B Std. Error Beta T Sig
Teachers Constant .211 .233 2.879 .012
HI .332 .161 .198 4.400 .000
Pupils Constant .329 1.24 3.776 .064
HI .387 .218 .217 3.473 .000
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DISCUSSIONS
Pupils’ retention in school is an important ingredient in schooling. However, the current study
revealed that majority of teachers (n=80, 79.2%) and pupils (n=180, 79.6%) indicated that the
progression rate of pupils from class 1 to 8 has decreased over time in Isiolo County. These findings
are an evidence that public day primary schools in Isiolo County are losing pupils' due to factors
such as household income. In addition, majority of teachers (n=82, 80.4%) and pupils (n=173,
78.6%) indicated that the progression rate of pupils from class 1 to 8 has been affected by household
income. Brock & Smith (2003) noted that availability of resources such as textbooks, desks and
blackboards has been found to influence dropout of pupils. In addition, lack of learning and teaching
resources is among the key challenges that were found to influence the retention of pupils in the
schools in Uganda (Muwanika, 2008).
Furthermore, over 95 % of the respondents were in agreement that children whose households
have low income suffer from inadequate provisions of basic materials for studying and this makes
pupils stay away from school (M=4.31). The study findings are supported by Glewwe and Chang
(2010) who indicated that parental SES is a powerful predictor of children’s academic attainment.
Also low family income has been linked to lower academic achievement and slower rates of
academic progress as compared with high-income families (Aronson, 2008; Snibbe & Markus,
2005). The findings revealed that majority of teachers (n=82, 90.4%) indicated that households
with low income may not value education of their children and this contributes to low retention of
pupils in school (M=3.99, STD=1.164). Findings further show that most of the respondents (n=77,
76.1%) indicated that low family income contributes to absence of learning habits and experiences
at home and affects the pupils’ retention rate in school (M=3.92, STD=1.021).
In fact, majority of teachers strongly agreed and agreed (80.4%) that family income has great impact
on students learning. Again, only a small proportion of respondents had a different opinion. The
study findings in Table 3 show that the majority of teachers(n=98, 97.1% ) revealed that children
whose households have low income suffer from inadequate provisions of basic materials for
studying and this makes pupils stay away from school(M=4.382, STD=.5636). The study findings
are in congruent with Constantino (2005) who examined six communities in the greater Los
Angeles, California, area and found that children in high-income communities had access
significantly to more books than children in low-income communities. Through the interview with
one of the County Education officers, it was noted that school drop-out; absenteeism and general
truancy is rampant in Isiolo County due to issues related to miraa and livestock herding. The
Pearson correlation coefficient between household income and pupils’ retention for both teachers
and pupils (r=.884, p=.000; r=.485, p=.000) also shows positive and significant results at .05 levels.
This implies that that pupils’ retention is dependent on the income of their parents.
According to Bhalotra & Heady (2003), children raised in poverty rarely choose to behave
differently, but they are faced daily with overwhelming challenges that affluent children never have
to confront, and their brains have adapted to suboptimal conditions in ways that undermine good
school performance. In testing the null hypothesis of Household Income has no Statistical Significant
Influence on Retention of Pupils in Public Day Primary Schools the ANOVA results was significant at
.05 levels from teachers (F=12.821, p=.000) and pupils (F=9.039, p=0.000). These results show that
there is significant relationship between household income and pupil retention among pupils' in
public day primary schools in Isiolo County. The null hypothesis HO12 which stated that Household
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Muchunku, J., Nelson, J., & Beatrice, M. (2020). Influence Of Household Income On Retention Among Pupils In Public Day Primary Schools In Isiolo County,
Kenya. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(11) 47-54.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.711.8830 53
Income has no Statistical Significant Influence on retention of Pupils in Public Day Primary Schools
was rejected. The study findings are consistent with a study by Mingat (2002) on the School
Characteristics, Socio-Economic Status and Culture as Determinants of Primary School Enrolment
in India, Mingat (2002) established that the richest households, 76 percent of their children attend
school compared to 40% of the poorest households. The results of this study further concur with
Sibanda (2004) who found that household income level attributes are important determinants of
dropping out of primary school pupils. The selection process for staying in primary school seems to
favor children from upper income groups compared to their low-income counterparts (OECD, 2013;
Sibanda, 2004).
CONCLUSION
The study investigated the influence of household income on the retention of pupils' in public day
primary schools in Isiolo County. Based on the summary of the findings, the household income, was
found to be strongly associated with retention of pupils' in public day primary schools in Isiolo
County. The major conclusion that can be deduced from the findings is that, pupils' retention in
public day primary schools in Isiolo County is strongly associated with household income. The
influence of household income on retention of pupils' in public day primary schools in Isiolo County,
Kenya showed that the computation of the proportion of the total variance on retention due to
household income was significant for teachers and for pupils' at .05 levels of significance; implying
for example that 79.3% of the variability on the effect of pupils’ retention can be explained from the
level of household income.
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