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Publication Date: June 25, 2020
DOI:10.14738/assrj.76.8416.
Saraee, S., Shabani, S., & Pasnak, R. (2020). A Life Skills Assessment Scale for High School Students in Tehran. Advances in Social Sciences
Research Journal, 7(6) 400-413.
A Life Skills Assessment Scale for High School Students in Tehran
Soheila Saraee
University of Rudehen
Somayeh Shabani
University of Rudehen
Robert Pasnak
George Mason University
ABSTRACT
A life skills questionnaire was developed based on existing theories. The
content validity of the questions was evaluated by educational experts.
The resulting life skills questionnaire had 83 questions and ten
subscales: empathy, emotion regulation, self-awareness, problem
solving, effective communication, interpersonal communication, stress
and critical thinking, creative thinking and decision making. It had good
reliability (r = .91) and validity. The confirmatory factor analysis
confirmed the proposed ten factor model of the questionnaire. Given its
reliability and validity, this scale of life skills can be used as a tool by
researchers.
Keywords: high school students, life skills, measurement scale,
standardization.
INTRODUCTION
In 1993, the World Health Organization, in coordination with UNICEF, introduced the Life Skills
Training Program as a comprehensive plan for early prevention and promotion of people's mental
health. Botvin and his colleagues [1 – 4] subsequently developed a life skill training package for
seventh -ninth grade students which was welcomed by mental health professionals. Botvin’s goal
was to design a primary prevention program for adolescents. Subsequent studies [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]
have shown that positive results for life skills training only results when all skills are taught to the
individual.
According to the World Health Organization, mental health does not only mean a lack of mental
disorder; it is also associated with certain attitudes and perceptions. People who are psychologically
healthy feel that they deal well with life’s issues, changes, and challenges. They can control their
lives, be responsible, use their mental abilities properly, communicate well with others and engage
in productive and useful activities [10]. Because the learning process continues throughout life from
the moment of birth to death, and the production and shaping of mentally healthy behaviors
depends on a number of factors. One of these factors is learning life skills, especially problem solving
[11]. Most growth researchers emphasize the application and effective role of life skills during
adolescence in improving health and social management issues such as drug abuse prevention,
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sexual abuse, adolescent pregnancy, suicide, and AIDS [12]. This time period is especially important
because the challenging behaviors in adolescents is a continuing problem in educational systems
[13].
Life skills increase practical capabilities and success. They are derived from analyzing needs, social
demands, and normal requirements of living in society. The goal of life skills training is to increase
psychosocial capabilities. Those skills that enable individuals to efficiently manage the demands,
difficulties, dangers and pressures of everyday life help them to successfully adapt to themselves,
others and to the whole society [14]. If life skills are taught at an appropriate developmental level,
they play a vital and therapeutic role in mental health [15].
Several life skills assessment questionnaires for students have been constructed. [16] as part of a
study designed to measure the relationship between the life skills and self-confidence of elementary
students, developed a questionnaire to measure life skills that had a Cronbach's alpha reliability
coefficient of 0.98. This questionnaire has a good validity and reliability for assessing life skills of
primary school students. [17] published a scale for higher secondary students, and [18] developed
a questionnaire for assessing life skills for college students
Instruments for assessing life skills in adolescents who are older than those studied by [17] have
not been made so far. Considering the psychological, mental, perceptual, emotional and behavioral
differences between this stage with other stages of development seems to require a special tool for
this age group.
Life skills required for different populations are likely to vary from culture to culture and from
region to region withing a country. There are currently no instruments for measuring life skills in
any predominantly Moslem urban area. Such areas make great demands on adolescents for effective
life skills, because of the mix of modern and traditional belief systems, expectations, and behavior.
Therefore, the present research was undertaken to formulate and standardize measure of life skills
for adolescents in the largest city in Iran. With a standardized and valid tool for measuring life skills,
teachers, other educators, educational psychologists, and researchers, can measure the baseline
(status quo) of student's life skills before any training or intervention, and plan their training
accordingly. This tool can also be reused after the training, to measure the effectiveness of the
training and so determine the impact of the educational intervention.
The purpose of this paper is to report on the development of a standard and valid instrument for
measuring life skills early in high school, and to answer the following questions:
1. What is a proper scale for measuring life skills, according to recommendations of the World
Health Organization,
2. How valid is the questionnaire made on this basis in the society for which it is designed?
3. To what extent does the resulting questionnaire have internal validity in the community
under study?
4. What kind of factor structure does the researcher-made questionnaire have?
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Saraee, S., Shabani, S., & Pasnak, R. (2020). A Life Skills Assessment Scale for High School Students in Tehran. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal,
7(6) 400-413.
METHOD
The present research method is descriptive-analytic. Descriptive indices, reliability coefficients,
validity assessments, and factor structure analysis were used to estimate psychometric properties
of the life skills scale.
Subjects
The potential population was all students in Tehran who were in high school in 2018. A multi-stage
sampling method was used. Thus, among the 20 regions of education in Tehran, five regions were
selected at the center and at the north, south, east, and west poles (regions 2, 7, 9, 12, 15). Two high
schools (one for girls and one for boys) were selected randomly from among the high schools in
each region, two classes were randomly selected from each high school, and the questionnaire was
distributed to 100 students who were selected randomly from these four classes in each region.
Although 500 copies of the questionnaire were distributed, just 420 copies were collected and 62
of these were excluded due to being corrupted. Of the questionnaires collected, 51.7% were from
girls and 48.3% were from boys; these students ranged from 15 to 17 years old.
Measuring tool
The main purpose of this research is to develop a reliable and valid instrument tool for measuring
life skills. The following steps were taken to build this tool:
Step 1
Examine the existing literature, including scientific articles, graduate theses, books and research
related to life skills, and drawing up the dimensions of life skills based on existing theories. A
distillation of the information found is summarized in Table 1.
Step 2
Study and translate existing questionnaires on the components of life skills
Step 3
Construct questions is based on these questionnaires and each item related to theories listed in
Table 1.
Step 4
Select the best questions from those proposed in Step 3.
Thus, in order to develop questions for the life skills questionnaire, the related theories and existing
domestic and foreign questionnaires were examined and 131 questions based on them were
formulated, as described in Steps 1 -4. The questions utilized Likert scales with five categories from
never to ever.
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Table1: Dimensions of life skills based on theories
Theories Components Items
Psychoanalysis view
Behavioral view Empathy
Attention to others' views respect for others
Imaginary substitution
Sympathetic attention Appropriate interpersonal behavior
Emotion regulation theory of
James Lange
Sartre theory
Eysenck theory
Decision making
skills
Identify the problem or decision- making position
Setting realistic goals
Consider all the solutions Examining advantages and
disadvantages of solutions
Committing yourself to a decision and execute a decision
Accepting responsibility for your actions
Assessing the real consequences of a decision
Preparation for changing a decision in order to adapt to new
situations
Psychoanalysis view
Gestalt theory
Erikson theory
Heinz Kohut theory and
psychology of self,
Kohlberg theory
Self-awareness
Identifying physical characteristics
Awareness of strengths and weaknesses
Awareness of thoughts and feelings, goals and values
Awareness of rights and responsibilities
Identity achievement
Newel and Simon theory
Gagne theory
Schoenfeld theory
Problem solving
skill
Accepting the problem Recognizing the problem
Understanding the nature of problem
formulating the problem Identifying centers that help to solve
problems
Choosing the best solution Acting on discovered solution
Looking back and evaluating the results of performed
activities
Birdwhistell theory Effective
communication
Listening
Talking
Respecting
Asking
Daring behavior
Body language
Appearance
Eric Berne theory
Harry Stack Sullivan theory
Interpersonal psychology of
Kellerman
Interpersonal
communication
Creating trust in interpersonal relationships
Clear communication
Accepting and supporting each other
Resolving conflicts and interpersonal problems
Psychoanalysis theory
Rational Emotive theory of
Ellis
Rogers theory
Rollo May theory
Stress
management
Physical reactions
Cognitive problems
Behavioral reactions
Emotional reactions
Constructivism theory
Learning theory
Metacognition theories
Critical thinking
Realizing the purpose and content
Explanation
Evaluation
Self-regulation
Associationism theory
System theory
Gestalt theory
Cognitivism
Creative thinking Cognitive components Motivational-emotional components
Personality components
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Saraee, S., Shabani, S., & Pasnak, R. (2020). A Life Skills Assessment Scale for High School Students in Tehran. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal,
7(6) 400-413.
Analytic method
A preliminary questionnaire was prepared with these 131 questions (for 10 components) and the
components of questionnaire were randomly distributed in the questionnaire. For this 131-item
questionnaire, Cronbach's alpha was 0.79. Then the loop method was executed. This method
calculates contribution to alpha of each single item. It removes one of the questions at a time and
calculates the alpha without it. If the deletion of a question is deleted reduces alpha, the question is
shown to contribute positively to Cronbach’s alpha, and is desirable. If, on the contrary, when a
question is eliminated Cronbach’s alpha increases, the question is undesirable; its presence reduced
alpha. So, the loop method keeps any question when, upon its removal, alpha decreases. The loop
method deletes a question if its removal increases alpha. Accordingly, via the loop method, 17
questions were deleted because they were not contributing positively to alpha. The alpha
coefficient of the remaining 114 questions was 0.88.
After evaluating the questions by the loop method, the 114 remaining questions were distributed
randomly in the questionnaire. As aforementioned 500 copies of this questionnaire were
distributed to the random sample of students, 420 copies were collected and processed, and 62
questionnaires were excluded due to being damaged.
RESULTS
All statistical operations were performed using SPSS 22 and LISREL 8.5 software. To determine the
final questions of the questionnaire, the correlation coefficient of each question with the whole test
was used. To assess the content validity, professors with relevant competence were polled. Factor
analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were used to investigate the construct validity. In the
reliability study, the internal consistency measure of Cronbach's alpha was used.
Construct validity
In order to answer the question of whether the questionnaire was really measuring what it was
designed to measure, exploratory factor analysis was performed, analyzing the principal
components to indicate that the set of questions of the questionnaire was comprised several factors.
To determine if the sample size for factor analysis was sufficient, the Kaiser-Meyer- Olkin (KMO)
test of sampling adequacy test was performed. Also, to determine that the correlation between test
materials in the community is not zero, Bartlett's test of sphericity was used. Since the
questionnaire has 10 sub-tests, the outcome of both the KMO test and the Bartlett's test of sphericity
for each sub-test is described in Table 2.
Table2: The results of KMO-related measurements and Bartlett test of Sphericity in 10 sub-tests of
life skills questionnaire
Component KMO Chi-square Df p
Empathy 0.680 241.303 28 0.001
Emotion regulation 0.620 325.883 36 0.001
Self-awareness 0.782 691.678 154 0.001
Problem-solving 0.754 361.448 36 0.001
Effective communication 0.664 538.328 105 0.001
Interpersonal communication 0.623 219.083 45 0.001
Stress management 0.817 566.573 45 0.001
Critical thinking 0.738 399.657 36 0.001
Creative thinking 0.619 386.295 91 0.001
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As shown in this table, the KMO test size at all scales is higher than 0.6, indicating that the
correlations in the correlation matrix are sufficient. The significance level of the Bartlett test is also
less than 0.05 at all scales, so the assumption of sphericity is met.
In the factor analysis of life skills test questionnaire, 10 factors were obtained (See Table 3).
Table 3:Factors and Questions Number for Each Factor
Dimensions Questions number Total
Empathy 1-10-20-29-40-48-69 7 questions
Emotion regulation 2-11-21-30-50-60-70-107 8 questions
Self-awareness 3-13-23-31-32-43-52-62-73-79-86-91-97 13 questions
Problem-solving 24-53-34-72-80-112 6 questions
Effective communication 25-35-54-64-81-92-96-98 8 questions
Interpersonal communication 6-16-26-37-55-65-113 7 questions
Stress management 7-18-27-36-56-66-75-82-104 9 questions
Critical thinking 8-17-47-57-67-76-83-88 8 questions
Creative thinking 9-19-28-39-58-68-77-100-102-106 14 questions
Decision-making 42-51-61-71-78-85-110 7 questions
The factor loadings for each of factors of the life skills questionnaire are shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Factor loadings of items of life skills questionnaire
Components
Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 0.406
10 0.593
20 0.561
29 0.684
40 0.735
48 0.527
59 0.114
69 0.297
2 0.38
11 0.539
21 0.551
30 0.436
41 0.260
50 0.501
60 0.493
70 0.516
107 0.411
3 0.284
13 0.315
23 0.559
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Saraee, S., Shabani, S., & Pasnak, R. (2020). A Life Skills Assessment Scale for High School Students in Tehran. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal,
7(6) 400-413.
31 0.589
32 0.591
43 0.575
52 0.470
62 0.547
73 0.419
79 0.495
86 0.334
89 0.043
91 0.556
93 0.098
97 0.613
111 0.123
4 0.139
14 0.242
24 0.657
34 0.283
53 0.681
63 0.089
72 0.671
80 0.704
112 0.671
5 -0.092
15 0.126
25 0.620
33 0.124
35 0.227
44 0.029
54 0.505
64 0.595
74 -0.041
81 0.453
87 0.045
90 -0.121
92 0.621
96 0.633
98 0.543
6 0.560
16 0.304
26 0.564
37 0.616
45 0.205
55 0.409
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65 0.713
103 0.042
113 0.604
114 0.225
7 0.349
18 0.564
27 0.670
36 0.649
46 0.117
56 0.633
66 0.676
75 0.530
82 0.462
104 0.664
8 0.481
17 0.544
38 0.286
47 0.637
57 0.497
67 0.576
76 0.537
83 0.548
88 0.619
9 0.495
19 0.534
28 0.492
39 0.671
49 0.220
58 0.362
68 0.508
77 0.301
84 0.129
100 0.414
101 0.051
102 0.357
106 0.313
109 0.282
12 -0.094
22 0.058
42 0.561
51 0.303
61 0.338
71 0.582
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Saraee, S., Shabani, S., & Pasnak, R. (2020). A Life Skills Assessment Scale for High School Students in Tehran. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal,
7(6) 400-413.
The factor analysis revealed 10 factors that explain 31% of the total variance of the questionnaire.
Therefore, this is a scale that has good psychometric indicators to measure students' life skills. To
verify the validity of above construct, a confirmatory factor analysis was performed with the version
8.5 of the LISREL software. The method of maximum likelihood was used. The results of fitting index
for the life skills assessment scale are presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Fit Index of Life Skills Scale
Fit Indicator Acceptable Domain Observed Value Fit Index Assessment
df/χ2
IFI
NNFI
RMSEA
CFI
SRMR
≤3
˃0/9
˃0.9
˂0/08
˃0/9
˂0.08
2/24
0/90
0.90
0/059
0/90
0/078
Fit
Fit
Fit
Fit
fit
fit
The ratio index of χ2 to degrees of freedom confirms the fit of model. This number is less than 3,
which means the model fit the data. The RMSEA error is 0.059 which is smaller than the criterion
(0.08) and therefore confirms the fit of the model. Finally, the IFI, CFI, and NNFI indexes are also
larger than the desired criteria (0.9), and confirm the fit of the model.
In Table 6 below, the standard and non-standard coefficients, t statistics, and p values are presented
separately for each of components. All factor loadings are significant at the alpha level of 0.01.
Questions were removed from the scale if their factor loadings were statistically insignificant (t
statistic less than 1.96). According to this criterion, 31 of the 114 initial questions were removed,
reducing the number of final questions in the final scale to 83.
Table 6: The Factor Loadings of the Life Skills Questions According to Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Question Nonstandard
coefficient
Standard
coefficient
Test
statistic p
Empathy
1 0.31 0.31 5.26 0.00
10 0.52 0.46 8.11 0.00
20 0.58 0.46 8.16 0.00
29 0.69 0.60 11.07 0.00
40 0.66 0.61 11.14 0.00
48 0.51 0.45 7.92 0.00
69 0.37 0.34 6.83 0.00
Emotion
Regulation
2 0.50 0.43 7.62 0.00
11 0.61 0.50 8.94 0.00
21 0.59 0.49 8.80 0.00
30 0.33 0.23 4.05 0.00
50 0.26 0.21 3.69 0.00
60 0.34 0.24 4.24 0.00
70 0.49 0.40 7.09 0.00
107 0.36 0.30 5.45 0.00
3 0.28 0.26 4.80 0.00
13 0.27 0.26 4.96 0.00
23 0.61 0.49 9.42 0.00
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Self-awareness
31 0.59 0.52 9.86 0.00
32 0.55 0.50 9.55 0.00
43 0.54 0.53 10.19 0.00
52 0.41 0.39 7.31 0.00
62 0.55 0.50 9.52 0.00
73 0.42 0.38 7.02 0.00
79 0.51 0.39 7.16 0.00
86 0.26 0.21 3.71 0.00
91 0.58 0.53 10.19 0.00
97 0.60 0.53 10.14 0.00
Problem-solving
24 0.60 0.52 10.3 0.00
34 0.21 0.21 3.7 0.00
53 0.65 0.63 12.49 0.00
7 0.69 0.59 11.50 0.00
80 0.67 0.59 11.46 0.00
112 0.65 0.58 11.30 0.00
Effective
communication
25 0.58 0.55 10.38 0.00
54 0.44 0.39 7.09 0.00
64 0.63 0.56 10.40 0.00
81 0.40 0.31 5.53 0.00
92 0.52 0.49 8.91 0.00
96 0.63 0.51 9.43 0.00
98 0.48 0.41 7.48 0.00
Interpersonal
Communication
6 0.44 0.40 7.57 0.00
16 0.15 0.17 3.08 0.00
26 0.56 0.50 9.65 0.00
37 0.53 0.53 10.23 0.00
55 0.36 0.33 6.07 0.00
65 0.63 0.58 11.46 0.00
113 0.60 0.52 10.01 0.00
Stress
Management
7 0.38 0.30 5.19 0.00
18 0.58 0.49 8.90 0.00
27 0.72 0.58 10.78 0.00
36 0.79 0.62 11.69 0.00
56 0.71 0.55 10.14 0.00
66 0.82 0.63 11.95 0.00
75 0.64 0.44 7.89 0.00
82 0.48 0.38 6.64 0.00
104 0.72 0.56 10.48 0.00
Critical Thinking
8 0.41 0.36 6.72 0.00
17 0.50 0.42 7.93 0.00
47 0.55 0.54 10.49 0.00
57 0.49 0.47 8.99 0.00
67 0.54 0.53 10.37 0.00
76 0.51 0.44 8.33 0.00
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Saraee, S., Shabani, S., & Pasnak, R. (2020). A Life Skills Assessment Scale for High School Students in Tehran. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal,
7(6) 400-413.
83 0.44 0.41 7.86 0.00
88 0.62 0.53 10.25 0.00
Creative
Thinking
9 0.50 0.48 8.92 0.00
19 0.42 0.39 7.06 0.00
28 0.51 0.46 8.38 0.00
39 0.61 0.56 10.52 0.00
58 0.32 0.24 4.30 0.00
68 0.40 0.35 6.32 0.00
77 0.20 0.15 2.61 0.00
100 0.35 0.29 5.19 0.00
102 0.29 0.22 3.81 0.00
106 0.36 0.31 5.29 0.00
Decision-Making
42 0.49 0.44 8.46 0.00
51 0.29 0.27 4.98 0.00
61 0.28 0.24 4.52 0.00
71 0.39 0.39 7.45 0.00
78 0.74 0.66 13.07 0.00
85 0.49 0.47 8.96 0.00
110 0.49 0.43 8.12 0.00
Reliability
Finally, the internal consistency of model or the degree of reliability was calculated using composite
reliability. The coefficients of reliability are shown in Table 7.
Table 7:Composite reliability (>0.7)
Component Number of Questions Number of Persons Composite reliability
(>0.7)
Empathy 7 358 0.745
Emotion regulation 8 358 0.713
Self-awareness 13 358 0.789
Problem-solving 6 358 0.749
Effective communication 8 358 0.724
Interpersonal communication 7 358 0.735
stress 9 358 0.811
Critical thinking 8 358 0.751
Creativity 10 358 0.708
Decision-making 7 358 0.714
All factors have high composite reliability, larger than the benchmark index (0.7) that was
introduced by [19]. This composite reliability indicates high internal reliability for the Life Skills
Scale.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to develop life skills assessment scale for adolescents in a large
Muslim urban area. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients for the student sample showed that all scales
had a high composite reliability (above the standard index of 0.7). The exploratory factor analysis
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indicated that some of questions loaded on common factors and should be removed from analysis.
In the end, 83 questions were identified with factor loadings of more than 0.4 that could explain
0.31 of variance of total life skills scores with 10 factors. The construct validity of the test was
verified by analysis by expert professionals and by exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis.
The ratio of chi-square to degrees of freedom is an absolute fit index [20]. This ratio for the present
model is 24/2, which indicates that the model fits the data.
The overall results of this study demonstrate that the psychometric qualities of validity and
reliability are appropriate and this test can be used to measure adolescent life skills for populations
similar to that studied. In Iran, many studies have affirmed the effectiveness of teaching life skills in
different areas. One team of researchers [21] found that life skills training had a profound effect on
academic progress and motivation. In another study, [22] showed that life skill training has a
significant effect on ability to deal with problems and coping strategies, improving problem solving,
foresight, and making reasonable evaluations. In still another study, [23] found that life skills
training leads to increase student compatibility and constructive interaction. Other research [24]
showed that teaching life skills reduce antisocial behaviors such as verbal and physical aggression,
criminal behavior, and alcohol abuse. Other studies have also indicated improvement of social skills
[25-26].The conclusion [27] that adolescents should be directly trained in the field of high-risk
behaviors and social harms, and that life skills skill training decreases social harm seems justified.
Although tools to measure life skills, tools were previously developed for children [16],
schizophrenics [28] and for students younger [17] or older than adolescents [18], none were
developed for assessing life skills in adolescents. Adolescence is a vulnerable time, and a tool to
measure the level of basic information and life skills that adolescents have has been needed. The
present research provides a reliable and valid tool for life skills training providers such as teachers,
educational psychologists, and researchers to measure the baseline (the status quo) of life skills
training before any training and intervention and based on this, plan their training, and assess its
success.
References
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