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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 11, No. 11
Publication Date: November 25, 2024
DOI:10.14738/assrj.1111.17876.
Bjork, L. G. (2024). School District Superintendents as Transformational Leaders. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal,
11(11). 129-141.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
School District Superintendents as Transformational Leaders
Lars G. Bjork
Department of Educational Leadership Studies,
University of Kentucky, USA
ABSTRACT
The educational reform movement in the United States (1983-2024) presented
school district superintendents with a wide array of challenges and opportunities.
Initially, state and federal policymakers’ called for draconian school and district
level accountability and endorsed he notion of top-down management. However,
the reality of implementing district-wide, systemic changes focused on improving
student learning outcomes influenced a shift in superintendents’ role from
manager to teacher-scholar. During the last decade, researchers examined the role
of superintendents in Instructionally Effective School Districts (IESD) and reported
that they used their managerial prerogatives to initiate and sustain district-wide
instructional improvement (Bjork, 2024). Research findings suggest that their
involvement hiring and supervising teachers, evaluating principals, clearly
articulating instructional and curricular goals, monitoring instructional
improvement and, engaging in long-term financial planning for instruction
indirectly influence the quality of learning and teaching. Findings from this
longitudinal case study extend our understanding of how superintendents’ enact
their role as teacher-scholar help to explain their success. Key elements of
Transformational Leadership including idealized influence, inspirational
motivation, intellectual stimulation and, individual consideration provided
considerable insight into how they enacted their role. In addition, findings suggest
that over time followers at different levels of the school district’s organization
(teachers, principals and central office staffs) adopted Transformational
Leadership dispositions and practices suggesting that it may be viewed as being
both multidimensional and multi-directional. These findings may expand our
understanding of how superintendents’ transformational leadership may influence
the development of professional cultures and enhance student learning.
Keywords: Superintendent, Transformational, Leadership, Reform, Instruction School
District Superintendents as Transformational Leaders.
INTRODUCTION
During the past several decades the rise of the global economy heighted public concern for the
capacity of American public schools to prepare the next generation of workers. Education
reform reports (1983-2024) not only called for draconian accountability measures but also
stimulated a wide-array of state and national policy initiatives focused on improving student
learning. During the first decade of education reform the reality of implementing district-wide,
systemic reforms shifted the national conversation that initially focused on blaming teachers
for failing the nation and its children to viewing them as indispensable in improving schools.
This shift also contributed to redefining the nature and direction of school and district
leadership. They shifted the focus of improving student learning from teachers to principals
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and then to school district superintendents. This shift was accompanied by a call for nurturing
teacher professionalism, re-culturing schools, enhancing teacher engagement and creating
professional learning communities. In these new circumstances, teachers, principals, central
office staffs and superintendents were viewed as both learners and leaders who are mutually
engaged in real change (Bjork, 2018). Analysis of three nation-wide, decennial reports released
by the American Association of School Administrators between 2000-2020 (Glass, Björk &
Brunner, 2000; Kowalski, et al., 2011; Tienken, 2021), suggest an important trend in
superintendents’ role expectations shifting from a traditional management to an emphasis on
serving as a teacher scholar (i.e. instructional leader). In addition, understanding how
superintendents who serve in Instructionally Effective School Districts (IESD) strategically use
their managerial prerogatives to support change provided considerable insight into how
superintendents used their managerial prerogatives as levers to enact their instructional
leadership role. Although scholars understand that instructionally effective superintendents
use these levers to improve instruction (Bjork, 2024), the notion of Transformational
Leadership helps to explain how they accomplish this in practice.
Educational Reform in the USA: Implications for Superintendents’ Leadership Role
The release of the Nation at Risk report by the National Commission on Excellence in Education
(1983) reflected “widespread concern for the quality of public education launched what
arguably is the most intense, comprehensive and sustained effort improve education in
America’s history” (Björk, 2001, p. 19). It and subsequent reports were highly critical of the
condition of public education and claimed that if schools were not fundamentally improved,
they would compromise the capacity of the nation to compete in the global economy. Four
successive waves of educational reform (1983-2024) challenged conventional assumptions
about the nature of teaching, learning and leadership (Björk, 2024). In retrospect these reform
initiatives influenced shifts in superintendents’ responsibilities and lay the foundation for
reconfiguring how they enacted their leadership roles. Educational reform reports released in
four consecutive waves over four decades (1982-2024). Although reports released in each
wave had a singular focus, several cross-cutting themes provided a sense of coherency (Björk,
Kowalski, & Young, 2005). For example, the first wave (1982-1986) focused on improving
student academic performance and introduced an era of high stakes accountability. They
advocated for increasing high school graduation requirements, lengthening the school day,
increasing teacher-licensure requirements and decentralizing decision-making authority to the
school-level. This gave principals and teachers more voice and agency in how to improve
learning and teaching. This shift was accompanied by adoption of building-level, team- leadership approaches and implementation of transformational leadership styles that
enhanced teachers’ influence on changes in learning and teaching. Reports released during the
second wave of education reform (1985-1989) emphasized the use of standardized tests,
higher-order thinking skills, collaboration, problem-based learning, and computer literacy but
importantly, underscored the importance of improving learning outcomes for all students.
Critics viewed several of these recommendations as being unduly prescriptive, test-oriented
and focused more on leadership and decision-making than on student learning outcomes. The
third wave of education reform reports (1989-2003) called for re-centering initiatives to
emphasize student learning. At this juncture, policy analysts note that during this era teachers
and principals were empowered to make decisions at the building level however policy-making
authority shifted from local school boards to state legislatures. Although reports released
during the fourth wave of education reform (2004-2024) reiterated the importance of student
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Bjork, L. G. (2024). School District Superintendents as Transformational Leaders. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(11). 129-141.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1111.17876
learning, policy makers, professors and practitioners criticized the regressive themes
expressed in the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2002) that emphasized top-down authority in
schools and districts, coercive mandates and test-based, high-stakes accountability.
Although fourth wave reports and subsequent state legislation embraced a view of leading
change that contradicted research findings, passage of Every Student Succeeds Act (2015)
corrected many objectionable provisions of the NCLB (2002). Superintendents continued
efforts to decentralize decision-making by taking action in several strategic areas including: (1)
Improving administrative coherency through the creation of district-level leadership teams
that aligned infrastructure, improved operational efficiency and emphasized student learning
(Anderson & Young, 2018); (2) Modeling districtwide administrative teamwork for launching
and sustaining change; (3) Building the capacity of principals and teachers to improve
classroom-level learning and teaching (Bjӧrk, Browne-Ferrigno & Kowalski, 2018); and, (4)
Institutionalizing data-informed decision making to ensure that all students learn (Björk,
Browne-Ferrigno, & Potterton, 2019). It is evident that superintendents recognized the
changing reality of work, the shifting locus of leadership and the importance of teamwork for
accomplishing district-wide educational reforms. The process of school district
decentralization contributed to redefining the roles of teachers, principals and superintendents
and provides insight into the emergence of superintendents as transformational leaders (Bjork,
2024; Björk, Browne-Ferrigno, & Potterton, 2019).
Superintendent Role Characteristics
Analysis of historical discourse and empirical findings on superintendents’ work have
contributed to identifying five role characterizations. Callahan (1962) described four roles
including: (1) teacher-scholar, (2) organizational manager, (3) democratic leader, and (4)
applied social scientist. A fifth role, communicator was added by Kowalski & Bjork (2005) who
recognized that effective communication was embedded throughout superintendent’s work.
Although some roles like teacher-scholar may be traced back to the founding of the position in
the 1850s, others have emerged as school district contexts changed and the nature of work
evolved. Scholars concur that although some roles may appear more important at times, none
are irrelevant (Björk, Browne-Ferrigno, & Kowalski, 2018). Although each role characterization
may be presented as being distinct, superintendents tend to move within and across roles to
accomplish their work. Each will be briefly discussed to facilitate understanding the complexity
and relevancy to their work.
Teacher-Scholar Role
The purpose of establishing the position of the superintendence in the middle of the 19th
century was to serve as a master teacher and provide oversight of curriculum and instruction
in urban school districts. The rise of industrialization, immigration, demographic shifts and
urbanization increased the size and complexity of schools. These circumstances influenced a
shift towards managerial responsibilities, they continued to enact their role as teacher-scholar
and provided oversight of state-mandated curricula and evaluated teacher performance
(Callahan, 1962). The release of A Nation at Risk (1984) heightened public concern for the
decline in students’ academic performance and once again brought their role as teacher-scholar
into sharp focus. At this juncture, improving learning and teaching became a critical dimension
of superintendents’ work. Kowalski & Björk (2005) observed that they synchronously enacted
their roles as manager and teacher-scholar to enhance student learning (Bjork, 2024).
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Organizational Manager Role
Despite the increasing size and complexity of urban school districts in the late 1800s, local
school boards expressed reservations about the capacity of superintendents to serve both as a
master teacher and manager (Björk & Gurley, 2005). Despite these concerns, local school
boards adopted a corporate management model in which superintendents were held
responsible for budgeting, personnel, facility management, and public relations (Bjork,
Kowalski & Browne-Ferrigno, 2005; Kowalski et al., 2011). By the early 20th century urban
school districts mimicked successful corporations in defining their governance roles,
management responsibilities, and establishing hierarchical organizational structures (i.e.
bureaucracies). They also defined the role of superintendents as Chief Executive Officers
(CEOs) responsible for managing school districts affairs. Although they continued provide
broad oversight of curriculum, learning and teaching these responsibilities were typically
delegated to central office staffs. However, education reform initiatives launched in 1982-2024
heightened interest how superintendents could lead systemic reforms focused on improving
students’ academic performance. Scholars examined how they enacted their roles in
Instructionally Effective School Districts (IESD). It was evident that they used their managerial
prerogatives (i.e. organizational space) to enhance learning and teaching including: (1)
Recruiting and hiring teachers and principals; (2) Supervising and evaluating them; (3) Clearly
articulating instructional and curricular goals; (4) Monitoring student learning and curricular
improvement initiatives and, (5) Financial Planning for instruction. Although these findings
provided an important framework for understanding how some IESD superintendents
leveraged their management prerogatives to enhance learning, few studies explored the nature
of superintendents’ leadership (Bjork, 2024; Björk, Browne-Ferrigno & Kowalski, 2018).
Democratic-Political Leader Role
Historically, schools have been viewed as an integral part of local communities. Consequently,
educators view engaging parents and citizens in discussions about the education of their
children as an essential part of their work. As the nation shifted from an agricultural to an
industrial and then to a post-industrial era, the influx of immigrants, shifting demographics, and
the changing nature of work increased the complexity and intensity of these discussions. In
current contexts, superintendents are expected to galvanize public support for education
across a wide array of interest groups, lobby state legislatures for adequate budget
appropriations, negotiate local tax rates and help to pass school bond issues. In accomplishing
these tasks they work closely with school board members, interest groups and professional
organizations (Björk & Browne-Ferrigno, 2014). Although there are differences in how
superintendents engage interest groups in different community settings, their success depends
on having political acuity to maintain relationships and work with and through others. The
question facing superintendents in these contexts is not whether they have a political role but
rather how they enact it (Björk & Gurley, 2005).
Social Scientist Role
Educators concur that changes in the nation’s social, economic, and political context has a
considerable influence on schools and districts as well as their capacity to educate each child
every day. Historically superintendents have understood the need for having more sensitivity
to social issues facing the nation and using interdisciplinary, social science approaches to find
equitable solutions to seemingly persistent problems. Callahan (1962) affirmed the value of
social science research findings and argued persuasively that superintendents should use
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Bjork, L. G. (2024). School District Superintendents as Transformational Leaders. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(11). 129-141.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1111.17876
relevant data in both understanding changes in the nation, local communities, and school
neighborhoods and making decisions. Consequently, it became best practice for
superintendents and principals to review data on students’ demographic characteristics,
academic performance, student achievement gaps as well as on staff performance and program
effectiveness. The education reform movement accelerated the use of social science data and
importantly enabled classroom teachers to understand and meet the education needs of all
children (Goldring & Greenfield, 2002) in the long-term contribute to the melioration of social
injustices (Fusarelli & Fusarelli, 2005).
Communicator Role
Communication permeates every aspect of superintendents’ work. It has evolved over time as
school district contexts and the nature and scope of their work changed and citizens’
expectations for public schools shifted. For example, concurrent with school districts’
implementation of corporate-oriented management practices during the late 1800’s
superintendents used a communication style characterized by Thayer (1961) as being “top- down and impersonal, intended narrowing for informing, instructing (or directing), evaluating
and influencing” (p. 4). However, the Depression of the 1930s changed the social, economic,
and political context of schooling in of the nation in several important ways including: (1)
Challenging the corporate orientation of school district administration; (2) Demanding greater
voice of community citizens in education policy and decision-making and (3) Articulating the
need for more personal communication patterns that facilitate community engagement. In
addition, education scholars reported research findings that the top-down communication
patterns lowered morale, decreased job satisfaction and reduced organizational effectiveness
(Björk, Kowalski, & Browne Ferrigno, 2014). The release of A Nation at Risk (1983) report not
only heightened community concern for the condition of schools but also increased parental
engagement. Unprecedented state and federal appropriations for school reform not only
expanded the number and influence of school district professional staffs and but also increased
the size of bureaucracies (Björk, 2001). This contributed to a more dynamic organizational
environment and communication challenges. Schlechty (1990) argued “that the way social
systems are put together has independent effects on the way people behave, what they learn,
and how they learn what they learn” (p. 134). In sum, effective superintendents adopted more
relational, two-way and symmetrical communication patterns (Kowalski et al., 2011). These
shifts were viewed as an integral part of changing the districts’ organizational culture and
accomplishing long-term, systemic reforms. In sum, these research findings suggest that
communication patterns of effective superintendents were often reciprocal and aligned with
collaborative ways of accomplishing work in professional organizations (Kowalski & Keedy,
2005).
Superintendents’ role characterizations provide a framework for understanding the changing
nature and complexity of their work as well as how they may be used independently or in
combination to manage and lead school districts. Although scholars note that IESD
superintendents may use their transactional management prerogatives as levers for improving
learning and teaching, there is a paucity of research findings on how they enact this role in
practice. The notion of Transformational Leadership provides a promising literature that may
help explain how superintendents translate traditional management-oriented tasks in leading
school districts.
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REVIEW OF TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP LITERATURE
Transactional leadership is associated with industrial era organizations and is defined by Rost
(1991) “an authority relationship between a least one manager and one subordinate who
coordinate their activities to produce and sell particular goods and/or services” (p. 145). In this
regard, transactional leaders tend to focus on the transaction between leader and follower
involving an exchange of a reward for their service (Bass, 1997). The characteristics of
transactional leaders encompasses elements most closely associated with conventional, top- down management characterized by efficiency, production and oversight of key functions
including planning, organizing, budgeting, hiring and, evaluating production. On the other hand,
Burns (1978) notes that in practice, Transformational Leadership redefines the roles of both
leaders and followers. He observes that, “The function of leadership is to engage followers, not
merely to activate them, to commingle needs and aspirations and goals in a common enterprise,
and in the process to make better citizens of both leaders and followers” (p. 461). Rost (1991),
extended the work of Burns (1978) in proposing a new school of leadership that fit post- industrial contexts. In doing so, he defined transformational leadership as, “an influence
relationship among leaders and followers who intend real changes that reflect their mutual
purposes” (p. 102). Bass (1999) Building on these ideas, Bass (1999) and Bass & Avolio (1994)
describe Transformational Leadership as occurring “when leaders broaden and elevate the
interests of their employees, when they generate awareness and acceptance of the purposes
and mission of the group, and when they stir their employees to look beyond their own self- interest for the good of the group” (p. 21). In retrospect, the notion of transformational
leadership reflected a fundamental change both in the nature of work and leadership during
the post-industrial era.
The concept of Transformational Leadership developed by Burns (1978) and Bass (1990, 1999)
was recently refined by Northouse (2022) and includes four key factors: Individualized
Influence, Inspirational Motivation, Intellectual Stimulation, and Individual Consideration.
These factors provide a framework for understanding how transformational leaders work in
context. Idealized Influence, originally described as charisma by Bass (1990), reflects the
leader’s ability to serve as role model for followers that exemplified a sense of vision and
mission of the organization, instilled pride and increased both respect and trust. These
leadership qualities motivated followers to identify, emulate and pursue a shared vision
(Northouse, 2022). Inspirational Motivation implies a leader’s ability to motivate followers
to pursue and accomplish shared vision that is greater than themselves and in common interest
with others in the organization (Northouse, 2022). Bass (1990) observes that leaders enact
inspirational motivation through communicating high expectations using language as well as
symbols that unambiguously express important goals and align followers efforts and
organization purposes (Bass, 1990). Intellectual Stimulation involves the leader’s ability to
articulate past and present conditions as well as speculate on the future state of affairs of the
organization in a highly intelligent and rational manner that contributes to problem-solving
(Bass, 1990, 1999; Bass & Avolio, 1994). In these circumstances, intellectual leaders engage and
challenge their followers to develop new problem solving approaches and strategies. These
leadership attributes serve as a catalyst for group creativity and innovation as well as promote
agency and originality of thought (Northouse, 2022). Transformational leaders who employ
Individual Consideration is characterized as providing personal attention to each employee
as well as offers individual coaching and advice (Bass, 1990). By giving individual attention to
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URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1111.17876
each follower, leaders demonstrate an authentic interest in and value each person and provides
a supportive professional development environment (Northouse, 2022).
Research findings suggest that superintendents serving in Instructionally Effective School
Districts (IESD) view principals and teachers, those closet to classroom instruction, as the
engines of education reform and used their managerial prerogatives to create the
circumstances in which they may enhance their instructional effectiveness. Preliminary
analysis of IESD superintendents indicate that superintendents were involved hiring
competent staffs (teachers and principals), nurtured their development, supported teamwork,
collaborated with staffs in formulating district goals and expectations and evaluated staff
performance and student learning outcomes as an integral part of their work (Browne-Ferrigno
& Bjӧrk, 2018). These instructional-oriented characteristics suggest that superintendents may
be viewed as transformational leaders.
RESEARCH METHODS
This longitudinal case study used methods associated with qualitative research to gain a deeper
understanding of how one school district superintendent enacted their role in creating a new,
instructionally effective high school. The researcher selected a medium-sized public school
district in a state recognized for its early educational reform initiatives and recognized for its
commitment to serving the needs of all students. The school district was characterized as
serving students drawn for rural, suburban and urban parts of the county. The district was
typical of many in the nation both in size, social, economic and political diversity. The use of
qualitative methods in conducting this longitudinal case study was appropriate for
understanding superintendents transformative leadership over time and enabled the
researcher to develop "analytical, conceptual, and categorical components from the data itself"
(Filstead, 1979, p. 33). Informal and semi-structured interviews (Cresswell, 2008, 2023) of key
individuals including the superintendent, the principal, assistant principals, and teachers. In
addition to interviews and observations, analysis of official documents (memoranda, letters
and district-level reports) were used to develop a contextually rich descriptive narrative of
events during a ten-year period (2013-2023) (Guba & Lincoln, 1981). Analysis proceeded
concurrently with the collection of data employing a reiterative cycle of definition, data
collection, analysis, and subsequent redefinition (Creswell, 2008, 2023). In addition,
researchers used a constant comparative approach using extant literature (Glaser & Strauss,
2017) to enhance the researcher’s ability to refine analytical, conceptual, and categorical
components as they emerged from data (Miles, & Huberman, 2020). Triangulation of data
enhanced the validity and reliability of the descriptive narrative (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994; Kirk
& Miller, 1986). These data collection methods enabled the researcher to obtain first hand,
contextually rich understanding of events as well as participant perceptions of reality, meaning
and behavior. These data provided insight into the nature and direction of the superintendent’s
leadership role in creating a new high school and nurturing a learning focused culture (Miles &
Huberman, 2020). The identity of individuals, dates and places have been masked to ensure
anonymity.
FINDINGS
The Superintendent as a Transactional and Transformational Leader
Bass (1998) and Rost (1991) note that transactional leaders have formal authority in an
organization and efficiently manage its affairs using traditional, top-down approaches
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including planning, organizing, directing, budgeting, hiring and, evaluating production. On the
other hand, Burns (1978) notes that transformational leaders accomplish their managerial
responsibilities by engaging followers, broadening their interests, involving them in defining
organizational goals and creating a sense of mutual purpose in accomplishing real changes
(Rost, 1991). Findings reported in this longitudinal case study of the Jackson County School
District (JCSD) superintendent indicate that they exhibited transformative leadership
characteristics in accomplishing management-oriented tasks. For example, the superintendent
advocated and gained support of the school board for increasing teacher salaries and raising
qualifications for employment. In addition, they were personally involved in recruiting and
hiring highly qualified teachers and principals whose dispositions aligned with district-wide
expectations for student learning and professional collaboration. This approach contributed to
the long-term goal of establishing and sustaining a collaborative work environment in the
district. The superintendent frequently articulated instructional and curricular goals of the
JCSD in wide-array of community, district and school venues. The superintendent’s efforts
reflected the district’s commitment to improving learning and teaching as well as underscored
the urgency of its work. These goals also served as the foundation for evaluating teacher and
principal performance and lent a sense of coherence to staff evaluation processes. They were
formative in nature and the district provided professional development support for staff that
aligned with individual needs. Although policy makers often used summative data on student
test scores as district performance indicators, the JCSD superintendent supported the
disaggregation of student tests scores by school, by grade level and by classroom as well as
monitored results. This aligned closely with the district’s guiding principal that it should serve
every child, every day. The notion of long-term financial planning was key to continuous
improvement in the district. Budgets were scrutinized to ensure that schools could provide an
adequate and equitable education for children and enabled the district to plan for salary
increases and new staff as well as provide for their long-term professional development. In
sum, the superintendent enacted their role in a manner similar to those reported in the
Instructionally Effective School District (IESD) literature (Bjork, 2024; Björk, Browne-Ferrigno
& Kowalski, 2018). These findings suggest that superintendent leadership may closely align
with key tenets of Transformational Leadership. Case study findings affirm Rost’s (1991)
notion that transactional and transformational leadership are not mutually exclusive but
complimentary dimensions of effective management and leadership. In other words, highly
effective superintendents enact their transactional management role in ways that reflect
several of the basic tenets of transformational leadership including idealized influence,
inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and, individual consideration. These several
dimensions of Transformational Leadership are used to analyze longitudinal case study
findings.
Idealized Influence
Idealized influence is central tenet of Transformational Leadership theory and Bass (1990)
posits that it has three sub-components including: Projecting a vision and sense of mission of
the organization, demonstrate high moral and ethical standards that engenders trust and
respect, and serve as a role model that may be emulated by followers. Importantly, in all of their
work they should strive to build trust as a leader by being who they say they are (Covey, 2022)
or simply put, walk the talk. In the context of ever increasing demands for education reform
and high stakes accountability, school board members, community leaders and parents realized
that change was necessary and made important commitments to support it both in principal
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and in practice. The JCSD superintendent was the most visible and constant advocate for
student learning in the community. The superintendent articulated a shared vision and mission
for improving schools that reflected a personal, moral stance about the importance of serving
every child, every day. The superintendent’s actions also reflected a commitment to the ethical
treatment teachers and principals. In this regard, the superintendent created the circumstances
in which they had a voice in decisions, agency in team decisions, collaborated in analyzing
student test data as well as benefitted from formative evaluations and professional
development services. The notion of idealized influence was evident in how the superintendent
enacted their role in working with the community, classroom teachers and school principals.
Inspirational Motivation
Bass (1990) viewed inspirational motivation as a leader’s ability to inspire and motivate
followers by using both verbal communicating and symbols to convey high expectations. He
also noted the importance of the leader’s ability to foster a climate in which followers may
identify with the organizations goals as well as motivate them to pursue a shared vision that is
in common interest with others in the organization (Northouse, 2022). Case study events
suggest that the JCSD superintendent conveyed high expectations for teachers, principals and
administrative staffs in a manner that not only motivated them participate in real reform but
also offered them a unique opportunity accomplish this work as a professional community in
which everyone was a learner. Over time, an interesting development emerged. As followers at
all levels of the school district organization engaged in collaborative work, followers mimicked
the inspirational motivation typically attributed to organizational leaders. In this regard,
inspirational motivation was observed as being multidimensional and multi-directional.
Consequently leadership as an influence pattern was simultaneously a top down, bottom up,
and lateral. Although the superintendent used inspirational motivation to initiate a change in
the culture of work, as it changed the nature of leadership also expanded exponentially. This
phenomena may be explained in part by Senge’s (2000) observation that effective leadership
emerges from formal and informal leaders in a professional learning community and that to
sustain continuous and meaningful improvement, leadership must emerge from a wide array
of followers including teachers, principals, central office staffs (program-level coordinators and
directors).
Intellectual Stimulation
Transformational leaders who exhibit intellectual stimulation not only encourage creativity
and innovation amongst organization followers (Northouse, 2022) but also place a high value
on rationality and problem solving (Bass, 1990). The JCSD superintendent had a sound grasp of
the direction and scope of educational reforms facing the nation, states and school districts and
was able to convey its importance and relevancy to the community, district, and schools. It was
a daunting scenario. But, the superintendent unpacked it and explained that it was a doable
task if given time, expertise and commitment of teachers, principals and central office staffs to
change the nature of learning and teaching. It was evident that emphasis on state accountability
in the near-term made standardized tests an incontestable measure of both student learning
and district success. However, in the long-term the superintendent recognized that teaching to
the test didn’t align with the district’s long-term goal of improving student learning. The
superintendent viewed deeper-learning that emphasized the application of knowledge to
problem solving and creativity was both consequential and achievable. Scholars note that
leaders draw upon the knowledge and expertise of others at every level of the district or school
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and is an important characteristic of their effectiveness (Elmore, 2000; Gronn, 2002). Senge
(2000) concurs that intellectual stimulation may be a key dimension of transformational
leadership but that in professional learning communities this influence pattern may be shared
among formal and informal leaders and is key to sustaining continuous change.
Individual Consideration
The notion of individualized consideration is an integral part of Transformational Leadership
and is expressed in concern for the general well-being of each follower as well as providing
advice and coaching to enhance their capacity to do work (Northouse, 2022; Bass, 1990).
Having an authentic concern for people is an important characteristic of effective
organizational leaders. Evidence suggests that individualized consideration was an important
dimension of the JCSD superintendent’s leadership approach in launching and sustaining
district-wide change initiatives. Recognition that teachers and principals were key to improving
learning and teaching was expressed through demonstrating concern for individuals both on a
personal and professional level. The superintendent used formative performance evaluations
to define the needs of teachers and principals as well as providing professional development
services, advice and coaching to enhance their effectiveness. Findings suggest that over time,
individual consideration initially expressed by the superintendent (formal leader) was also
adopted by principals and teachers (informal leaders) who shared a common interest in
accomplishing important goals and created a culture of learning and caring. This suggests that
individualized consideration may be viewed as being a multilevel, multidimensional and
multidirectional aspect of transformational leadership.
CONCLUSION
Launching and sustaining systemic educational reform remains a national, state and
community priority. For over four decades, it has continued to be one of the most challenging
aspects of school district superintendents’ leadership. Scholars have defined superintendents’
role characterizations including teacher-scholar, organizational manager, democratic leader,
applied social scientist and, communicator and while the importance of each may shift, all
remain relevant. Recent scholarly work examined the role of superintendents in Instructionally
Effective School Districts (IESD) note that they use managerial prerogatives as levers to launch
and sustain district-wide improvement of learning and teaching (Bjork, 2024). Several strategic
managerial responsibilities that indirectly influenced the quality of learning and teaching
include being closely involved in recruiting and hiring and supervising teachers, evaluating
teachers and principals, articulating instructional and curricular goals, monitoring
instructional improvement and, engaging in long-term financial planning. Although these
findings lay and important foundation for understanding how school district superintendents
may enact their role as teacher-scholar, understanding the nature of their leadership remained
in question. Findings from this longitudinal case study provide important insights into how
superintendents enact their role to improve learning and teaching. The notion of
Transformational Leadership helps to explain their success and may add to the knowledge base
in the field as well as inform veteran and aspiring superintendents. Several dimensions of
Transformational Leadership including idealized influence, inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimulation and, individual consideration were used to understand and explain
their success. Findings reported both affirm their respective relevance and extend the notion
of Transformational Leadership in creating and sustaining professional communities. Findings
also suggest that when superintendents enact Transformational Leadership over time,
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Bjork, L. G. (2024). School District Superintendents as Transformational Leaders. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(11). 129-141.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1111.17876
followers at different levels in the district organization (central office staffs, principals and
teachers) may embrace transformational leadership practices. In this regard, transformational
leadership may be viewed as a being multilevel, multidimensional and multi-directional. This
emerging perspective may enhance our understanding of the long-term implications of
transformational leadership and provides a promising direction for future research.
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