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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 11, No. 10
Publication Date: October 25, 2024
DOI:10.14738/assrj.1110.17665.
Ab Rahman, A. H., Abdullah, A., Johari, M. L., Yusoff, S., & Rasli, F. N. (2024). Social Media Usage and Social Capital as Determinants
of Oil Palm Integration Practices Among Smallholders in East Malaysia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(10). 58-73.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Social Media Usage and Social Capital as Determinants of Oil Palm
Integration Practices Among Smallholders in East Malaysia
Abdul Hafiz Ab Rahman
Center for Research in Development, Social and Environment,
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Azlina Abdullah
Center for Research in Development, Social and Environment,
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Mohammad Lui Juhari
Center for Research in Development, Social and Environment,
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Sarina Yusoff
Center for Research in Development, Social and Environment,
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Fateen Nabilla Rasli
Center for Research in Development, Social and Environment,
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
ABSTRACT
Social media plays an increasingly important role in expanding social networks,
which may influence the development of social capital among rural communities.
This study investigates the relationship between social capital, social media usage,
and the adoption of integration practices among oil palm smallholders in East
Malaysia. A survey of 194 smallholders revealed that those with higher education
levels had significantly higher bonding social capital (p < 0.05). Additionally,
smallholders who had used WhatsApp for five years or more exhibited significantly
higher levels of both bonding and bridging social capital (p < 0.05). The study found
a significant association between bridging social capital and integration practices,
particularly non-agricultural activities, but no significant link with bonding social
capital. Logistic regression showed that smallholders with higher bridging social
capital were more likely to engage in non-agricultural integration practices (OR =
5.64, 95% CI = 2.30–13.83, p < 0.001). These findings suggest that targeted efforts
to enhance social media literacy could strengthen social capital and diversify the
economic activities of smallholders. Expanding future research to cover a broader
geographical area with varying internet accessibility is recommended.
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Ab Rahman, A. H., Abdullah, A., Johari, M. L., Yusoff, S., & Rasli, F. N. (2024). Social Media Usage and Social Capital as Determinants of Oil Palm
Integration Practices Among Smallholders in East Malaysia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(10). 58-73.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1110.17665
Keywords: agricultural integration, oil palm smallholders, social capital, social media,
Sarawak
INTRODUCTION
The internet and social media have significantly transformed global communication,
connecting individuals worldwide, including those in rural and remote areas. Smartphones
remain crucial in bridging the digital divide, facilitating widespread use across both younger
and older generations [1]. As of 2024, there are approximately 5.45 billion internet users
globally, representing 67.1% of the world's population. Social media users now total 5.17
billion, accounting for 63.7% of the global population [2]. In Malaysia, social media penetration
has reached 83.1% of the population, reflecting high adoption rates for platforms such as
WhatsApp (90.7%), Facebook (84.9%), and Instagram (77.0%) [3]. The COVID-19 pandemic
accelerated this trend, and social media penetration continues to rise. Malaysians spend an
average of over six hours per day on the internet, further emphasizing the importance of digital
platforms in everyday life [4].
Malaysia is the world's second-largest palm oil producer after Indonesia, contributing to over
80% of global palm oil production. Approximately 77% of Malaysia's agricultural land, or 15%
of its total land area, is dedicated to oil palm plantations, covering about 5.85 million hectares.
Oil palm cultivation was introduced in rural areas as a poverty reduction measure. Malaysia has
around 650,000 oil palm smallholders, accounting for 16.7% of the country's oil palm
plantation area [5] These oil palm smallholders often face challenges, such as volatile
commodity prices and difficulty maintaining their plantations. The Malaysian government is
aware of the threats most oil palm smallholders face. Diversification of income sources through
agricultural integration is considered one of the most effective ways to reduce income
uncertainty, particularly among the poor [6]. Agricultural integration involves combining
different crops, livestock, or both within a farming system. In this study, oil palm integration
refers to the practice of combining oil palm cultivation with other agricultural or non- agricultural economic activities, such as retail businesses and food stalls [7] [8] [9].
Agricultural integration continues to show significant potential for improving both the yields
and incomes of oil palm smallholders. By diversifying their activities, smallholders can mitigate
risks associated with volatile global palm oil prices and stabilize their agricultural and
economic activities [6]. A recent study highlights the effectiveness of integrating livestock, such
as cattle, with oil palm plantations, which not only diversifies income but also improves farm
sustainability [10]. Moreover, oil palm smallholders are increasingly engaging in non- agricultural activities such as retail and handicrafts to further stabilize income streams [11].
These integrated practices act as a buffer during periods of low palm oil prices or when
environmental challenges such as floods and droughts reduce yields. Oil palm integration has
yielded significant benefits for smallholders, as evidenced by a study by Zaimah [9], which
reported increased income among smallholders in Johor and Sabah following oil palm
integration practices.
Effective social networks, or social capital, are crucial in improving the success of agricultural
integration among smallholders [12] [13]. Social networks enable smallholders to access
information, share experiences, and interact more efficiently with agricultural development
officers, enhancing their adoption of new farming techniques and business strategies. These
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networks foster innovation and help smallholders create new business opportunities,
especially through the exchange of information on market access and improved agricultural
practices. However, rural farmers, particularly those in remote areas, face challenges in
building such networks due to geographic isolation and limited access to infrastructure and
technology. Recent studies emphasize that participation in social networks significantly
enhances smallholders’ ability to adopt climate-smart agricultural practices, manage risks, and
improve productivity [14]. In contrast, urban dwellers benefit from denser populations and
greater access to resources, enabling them to build broader and more diverse social networks
[11] [15]. Consequently, rural farmers often struggle to access essential social services, such as
roads, healthcare, and markets, which further limits their ability to capitalize on social capital.
BACKGROUND
The Influence of Social Media in the Formation of Social Capital
The increasing accessibility of the internet and the availability of affordable smartphones have
greatly influenced how social media contributes to the formation of social capital. With over
5.17 billion social media users globally in 2024, these platforms provide a digital space that
fosters extensive global connectivity and strengthens social networks [16]. Social media
technologies enable users to create diverse relationships and form online communities with
ease, further expanding their social networks [17].
Social media's ability to maintain existing social networks and facilitate constant
communication plays a pivotal role in the development of social capital, which encompasses
trust, social networks, and norms. As Putnam [18] described, social capital comprises the social
networks that individuals own, providing them with access to various benefits. Social capital
can be divided into two types: bonding and bridging. Bonding social capital represents strong
ties, such as those within families or close-knit communities, which offer emotional support. In
contrast, bridging social capital involves weaker ties that expose individuals to new
information and broader perspectives but offer less emotional support.
Numerous studies have highlighted the role of social media in fostering bridging social capital,
given its capacity to connect users to diverse networks [19]. However, the relationship between
social media usage and bonding social capital has been less explored [20]. In Malaysia, existing
research has primarily focused on students and urban populations, leaving a gap in
understanding the impact of social media on bonding and bridging social capital among
smallholder farmers. This study seeks to fill that gap by exploring how different types of social
media usage influence the formation of social capital among oil palm smallholders, offering
valuable insights into the role of social media in enhancing social networks within rural farming
communities.
The Relationship Between Oil Palm Integration, Social Media, and Social Capital
Agricultural integration plays a crucial role in supporting smallholders by providing them with
opportunities to diversify income streams and improve sustainability. Integration is essential
not only for overcoming challenges like fluctuating commodity prices but also for expanding
access to information and resources that enhance agricultural productivity [10][9]. Studies
have consistently shown that social networks strengthen agricultural integration by offering
valuable connections to markets and agricultural innovations [12] [13]. However, rural
smallholders often face limited access to these extensive networks due to their geographic
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Ab Rahman, A. H., Abdullah, A., Johari, M. L., Yusoff, S., & Rasli, F. N. (2024). Social Media Usage and Social Capital as Determinants of Oil Palm
Integration Practices Among Smallholders in East Malaysia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(10). 58-73.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1110.17665
isolation, which constrains their interactions to close family members and friends [21]. Recent
advancements in social media offer new opportunities to overcome these limitations. Social
media platforms, with their ability to expand and sustain both bonding and bridging social
capital, have become increasingly important in rural areas [22]. Social media literacy, in
particular, enhances these platforms' effectiveness, enabling smallholders to make informed
decisions and reduce reliance on traditional intermediaries [23]. Furthermore, smallholders
who effectively use social media benefit from greater market access, knowledge-sharing, and
the potential to diversify their agricultural practices by integrating oil palm cultivation with
non-agricultural activities, such as retail or food businesses.
This study aims to fill existing gaps by investigating the association between social media usage,
social capital formation, and agricultural integration among oil palm smallholders. It seeks to
examine how social media literacy impacts both bonding and bridging social capital and
contributes to more effective integration practices within this context.
METHODS
This study was conducted in Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia, a key industrial city known for its rich
natural resources, including oil, gas, and timber. Bintulu covers an area of approximately
12,313 square kilometres and has a population of approximately 250,000 people. It is home to
significant natural gas reserves, with an estimated 42.3 trillion cubic feet located offshore,
positioning Bintulu as a major hub in Malaysia's energy sector.
Figure 1: Map of Sarawak showing the site of study with insert showing Bintulu District.
Data collection for this study was conducted in longhouses located within the Bintulu district,
chosen due to the high concentration of smallholders residing there. According to the Malaysian
Palm Oil Board (MPOB), there are 1,639 independent oil palm smallholders in the Bintulu
district. Longhouses in areas with better internet coverage, primarily near Bintulu city, were
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prioritized for the study. Internet coverage in Bintulu has improved significantly, with 4G
network coverage reaching 52.34% as of mid-2024 [24].
This study was conducted using a survey approach. Based on Krejcie and Morgan [25], the
sample size required for this study is 310 respondents. Using the random sampling method, 35
smallholders were selected from each longhouse to participate in the survey. A total of 350
questionnaires were distributed; however, only 194 completed questionnaires were
successfully collected. Figure 2 is an overview of the process of data collection.
The researcher obtained approval from the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) in Bintulu to
conduct the study within longhouse communities. This collaboration ensured that the survey
questionnaires were culturally appropriate, with translations provided in the Sarawak Malay
language to better accommodate respondents' preferences. Data collection was facilitated by
two local enumerators familiar with the community, which improved participation and data
accuracy. The questionnaire gathered detailed information on respondents' demographics,
social media usage, and levels of social media literacy, which specifically focused on
respondents' ability to access and utilize social media for communication and agricultural
integration practices. The design and validation of the questionnaire were previously published
[23]. Reliability analysis using Cronbach’s alpha yielded a value of 0.845, indicating a high level
of internal consistency and reliability.
Figure 2: Flow chart of the process of data collection.
Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. An independent t-test was
employed to compare the level of social capital among oil palm smallholders based on gender.
A one-way ANOVA test was used to analyze differences in social capital based on age groups
and educational levels. Additionally, logistic regression analysis was conducted to identify the
factors influencing the adoption of agricultural integration practices. Statistical significance
was set at p < 0.05, with the models demonstrating strong predictive power for the variables
analyzed.
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Ab Rahman, A. H., Abdullah, A., Johari, M. L., Yusoff, S., & Rasli, F. N. (2024). Social Media Usage and Social Capital as Determinants of Oil Palm
Integration Practices Among Smallholders in East Malaysia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(10). 58-73.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1110.17665
Measurement of Social Capital
Social capital is a complex concept that lacks a universally accepted definition, with various
researchers using different indicators and methods to measure it. In this study, social capital
was measured using a questionnaire adapted from [20], modified to reflect the context of oil
palm smallholders. The questionnaire was translated into Malay to ensure cultural relevance
and comprehension. It was divided into two sections: the first focused on bonding social capital
with eight items, and the second on bridging social capital with ten items. Each item was rated
on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree).
An example of an item measuring bonding social capital is: “There are some people in my
WhatsApp network whom I trust to help me solve my problems". For bridging social capital, an
example is: “I support agricultural agencies and community activities through WhatsApp.”
These items reflect the strong ties associated with bonding capital and the broader, more
diverse connections of bridging capital, which are essential for accessing resources and
information in the rural agricultural sector.
RESULTS
Background of Respondents
The demographic profile of the respondents was analyzed to provide insight into the
background of oil palm smallholders participating in this study. A total of 194 smallholders
were randomly selected. Of these, 89.2% were male, while female smallholders made up 10.8%.
The age distribution showed that 55% of respondents were aged 50 years and above, 33% were
between 41–50 years, and 16% were aged 31–40. A significant proportion of the participants
were married (84.5 percent), and the majority identified as Iban ethnicity (90.7 percent). In
terms of education, the majority of respondents (51%) had completed secondary school, while
31.4% had only primary education. About 10.8% had no formal education, 5.2% held a diploma,
and 1.5% had a degree. The distribution of monthly income showed that 41.2% earned between
RM1,000 and RM2,000, 32.5% earned between RM2,001 and RM3,000, and only 3.1% earned
more than RM5,000 per month. The summarized demographic information is presented in
Table 1.
Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Oil Palm Smallholders in Bintulu, Sarawak
Respondents’ profile Frequency (n) Percentage (%)
Gender
Male 173 89.2
Female 21 10.8
Age (years)
31- 40 31 16
41-50 64 33
Above 50 99 55
Marital Status
Single 15 7.7
Married 164 84.5
Widow 11 5.7
Divorced 4 2.1
Ethnicity
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Malay 3 1.5
Iban 176 90.7
Melanau 4 2.1
Bidayuh 3 1.5
Kayan 4 2.1
Kenyah 1 0.5
Chinese 3 1.5
Education level
No schooling 21 10.8
Primary school 61 31.4
Secondary school 99 51.0
Diploma 10 5.2
Degree 3 1.5
Monthly income (*RM)
Less than RM1000 21 10.8
RM1000 – RM2000 80 41.2
RM2001 – RM3000 63 32.5
RM3001 – RM4000 24 12.4
RM5000 and above 6 3.1
*RM: Malaysian currency RM1 = USD 0.22
Bonding and Bridging Social Capital
The measurement of bonding and bridging social capital was based on respondents’ agreement
with statements regarding their interactions through social media, adapted from the
instrument developed by Ellison [26]. The level of bonding social capital was categorized based
on a cut-off point derived from the mean score of 24.99. Respondents with scores above 24.99
were classified as having a high level of bonding social capital, while those scoring below this
threshold were categorized as having a low level. For bridging social capital, a cut-off point of
35.19 was used, with scores exceeding this value indicating a high level of bridging social capital
and scores below 35.19 representing a low level. These cut-off points were calculated based on
the mean values for both bonding and bridging social capital, as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Descriptive statistics for bonding social capital and bridging social capital
n Minimum Maximum Mean Standard deviation
Bonding Social Capital 194 8 40 24.99 6.05
Bridging Social Capital 194 18 50 35.19 6.51
Analysis of Bonding and Bridging Social Capital by Gender:
An independent t-test was conducted to compare the levels of bonding and bridging social
capital between male and female smallholders. The results indicated that male smallholders
had a marginally lower mean score for bonding social capital compared to their female
counterparts. Conversely, male smallholders exhibited slightly higher mean scores for bridging
social capital than females (Table 3). However, these differences in both bonding and bridging
social capital between genders were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). These findings
suggest that while there are slight variations in social capital levels by gender, they are not
substantial enough to indicate a statistically meaningful difference.
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Ab Rahman, A. H., Abdullah, A., Johari, M. L., Yusoff, S., & Rasli, F. N. (2024). Social Media Usage and Social Capital as Determinants of Oil Palm
Integration Practices Among Smallholders in East Malaysia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(10). 58-73.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1110.17665
Table 3: Comparison of bonding and bridging social capital based on gender
Gender n Mean Standard deviation t Sig. (p)
Bonding social capital
Male 173 24.97 6.31 -0.16 0.88
Female 21 25.19 3.17
Bridging social capital
Male 173 35.30 6.64 0.67 0.50
Female 21 34.29 5.27
Analysis of Bonding and Bridging Social Capital by Age:
Table 4 presents the results of a one-way ANOVA, which was conducted to assess differences
in bonding and bridging social capital across various age categories among smallholders.
Smallholders aged 31-40 years exhibited the highest mean scores for both bonding (mean =
26.90) and bridging social capital (mean = 38.77). In contrast, those aged 41-50 years had the
lowest bonding social capital (mean = 23.44), while smallholders aged above 50 years had the
lowest level of bridging social capital (mean = 33.75). These differences across age groups were
statistically significant (p < 0.05). A post-hoc analysis using Duncan's multiple range test
revealed significant differences in bonding social capital between smallholders aged 31-40
years and those aged 41-50 years (p < 0.05). However, no significant difference was observed
between the 31-40 years and the above 50 years age groups (p > 0.05). For bridging social
capital, the post-hoc test indicated statistically significant differences between smallholders
aged 31-40 years and those aged 41-50 years, as well as between the 31-40 years group and
those above 50 years (p < 0.05).
Table 4: Comparison of bonding and bridging social capital based on age group
Age group n Mean Standard deviation F df Sig. (p)
Bonding social capital
31- 40 years 31 26.90a 5.00 4.02 2 0.02
41-50 years 64 23.44b 6.81
Above 50 years 99 25.40ab 5.62
Bonding social capital
31- 40 years 31 38.77a 6.92 7.85 2 0.001
41-50 years 64 35.69b 6.84
Above 50 years 99 33.75b 5.68
Different letters indicate significant differences at the p < 0.05 level.
Analysis of Bonding and Bridging Social Capital by Education Level:
A one-way ANOVA was conducted to evaluate the differences in bonding and bridging social
capital across different education levels among oil palm smallholders. The analysis revealed
that smallholders with higher education levels demonstrated significantly higher levels of both
bonding and bridging social capital (Table 5).
Specifically, post-hoc analysis using Duncan’s multiple range test indicated that smallholders
with diplomas had significantly higher levels of social capital compared to those without formal
education and those with only primary education (p < 0.05). However, no significant
differences were observed between smallholders with diplomas and those with secondary
education (p > 0.05). These findings suggest that higher education is associated with an
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increase in both bonding and bridging social capital, although the effects plateau beyond the
secondary education level.
Table 5: Comparison of bonding and bridging social capital based on education level
Education level n Mean Standard Deviation F df Sig. (p)
Bonding social capital
No schooling 21 23.71a 6.19 2.82 4 0.026
Primary school 61 23.21a 6.53
Secondary school 99 26.13b 5.78
Diploma 10 26.90b 2.64
Degree 3 26.33b 0.58
Bridging social capital
No schooling 21 30.86a 5.79 6.95 4 < 0.001
Primary school 61 33.43a 5.44
Secondary school 99 36.80ab 6.59
Diploma 10 39.70b 6.13
Degree 3 33.67a 6.35
Different letters indicate significant differences at the p < 0.05 level.
Analysis of Bonding and Bridging Social Capital by Duration of WhatsApp Usage:
A one-way ANOVA was performed to assess the relationship between the duration of WhatsApp
usage as a social media platform and the levels of bonding and bridging social capital among oil
palm smallholders. The results indicated that bonding social capital significantly varied
according to the length of time smallholders had been using WhatsApp (F = 4.96, df = 5) (Table
6). Smallholders who had been using WhatsApp for five or more years exhibited the highest
level of bonding social capital, with a mean score of 26.34. The findings suggest a positive
correlation between the duration of WhatsApp usage and bonding social capital, where longer
usage is associated with higher levels of bonding social capital (p < 0.05). Post-hoc analysis
using Duncan’s multiple range test revealed significant differences in bonding social capital
between smallholders who had never used WhatsApp and those who had used it (p < 0.05).
Similarly, for bridging social capital, the highest levels were observed among smallholders with
five or more years of WhatsApp usage (mean = 38.38), while the lowest levels were found
among those who had never used the platform (F = 11.66, df = 5). This difference was
statistically significant at p < 0.001, further demonstrating that prolonged use of WhatsApp is
linked to higher bridging social capital among smallholders.
Table 6: Comparison of bonding and bridging social capital based on duration of
WhatsApp usage
Duration of WhatsApp usage n Mean Standard Deviation F df Sig. (p)
Bonding social capital
Never 7 15.71a 4.07 4.96 5 < 0.001
1 year 14 24.29b 5.05
2 years 65 24.15b 5.65
3 years 7 25.14b 1.46
4 years 22 26.00b 6.91
5 years and above 79 26.34b 5.93
Bridging social capital
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Ab Rahman, A. H., Abdullah, A., Johari, M. L., Yusoff, S., & Rasli, F. N. (2024). Social Media Usage and Social Capital as Determinants of Oil Palm
Integration Practices Among Smallholders in East Malaysia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(10). 58-73.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1110.17665
Never 7 27.00a 3.37 11.66 5 < 0.001
1 year 14 32.00b 4.62
2 years 65 33.05b 5.72
3 years 7 30.00ab 3.02
4 years 22 36.36c 6.13
5 years and above 79 38.38c 6.21
Different letters indicate significant differences at the p < 0.05 level.
Analysis of Bonding Social Capital and Bridging Social Capital with The Number of
Friends on Social Media:
A one-way ANOVA was conducted to examine the relationship between the number of friends
on the social media platform WhatsApp and levels of bonding and bridging social capital among
smallholders. The analysis revealed a significant difference in bridging social capital based on
the number of friends, with smallholders who had between 100 to 200 friends reporting the
highest levels of bridging social capital (F = 11.46, df = 4, p < 0.05) (Table 7). However, the
number of friends did not have a significant impact on bonding social capital, as no statistically
significant differences were observed in this area (p > 0.05). These findings suggest that a larger
network of social media connections enhances bridging social capital, while bonding social
capital remains unaffected by the size of one’s social media network.
Table 7: Comparison of bonding social capital and bridging social capital based on the
number of friends on WhatsApp
Number of friends on WhatsApp n Mean Standard Deviation F df Sig. (p)
Bonding social capital
Never 7 22.29 10.99 2.24 4 0.066
10-50 friends 86 23.95 5.09
50-100 friends 77 25.65 6.20
100-200 friends 16 27.25 6.92
200-300 friends 8 27.75 4.74
Bridging social capital
Never 7 35.14a 2.19 11.46 4 < 0.001
10-50 friends 86 32.12a 4.74
50-100 friends 77 37.58b 7.61
100-200 friends 16 39.75b 1.53
200-300 friends 8 36.13a 5.25
Different letters indicate significant differences at the p < 0.05 level.
Analysis of Bonding Social Capital and Bridging Social Capital with The Type of
Integration Practice:
A comparison of bonding and bridging social capital levels based on the type of integration
practice employed by smallholders was conducted. The results indicated no statistically
significant differences in either bonding or bridging social capital across different integration
practices (p > 0.05) (Table 8). These findings suggest that the type of integration practice,
whether agricultural or non-agricultural, does not have a measurable impact on the levels of
social capital among smallholders.
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Table 8: Comparison of bonding social capital and bridging social capital based on the
type of integration practice
Type of integration n Mean Standard deviation F df Sig. (p)
Bonding social capital
None 27 24.93 5.46 2.53 3 0.06
Crops 129 24.40 6.40
Livestock 8 29.50 5.90
Livestock and crops 30 26.43 4.22
Bridging social capital
None 27 32.48 4.00 2.07 3 0.11
Crops 129 35.64 7.00
Livestock 8 37.25 7.15
Livestock and crops 30 35.13 5.46
Association between Bonding and Bridging Social Capital with Oil Palm Integration:
A chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine the association between bonding
and bridging social capital and oil palm integration practices among smallholders. The analysis
revealed a significant association between bridging social capital and oil palm integration (p <
0.05), indicating that smallholders with higher levels of bridging social capital were more likely
to engage in oil palm integration. However, no significant association was found between
bonding social capital and oil palm integration (p > 0.05) (Table 9). These findings suggest that
while strong, close-knit relationships (bonding social capital) do not influence integration
practices, broader, more diverse networks (bridging social capital) play a critical role in
facilitating oil palm integration.
Table 9: Chi-square test of independence of association between level of bonding and
bridging social capital and oil palm integration
Oil Palm Integration
No Yes
n (%) n (%) 2 df Sig. (p)
Bonding social capital
Low level 16 59.3 75 44.9 1.92 1 0.166
High level 11 40.7 92 55.1
Bridging social capital
Low level 19 70.4 82 49.1 4.21 1 0.04
High level 8 29.6 85 50.9
Association between Bonding and Bridging Social Capital with Non-Agricultural
Integration Practice:
A chi-square test of independence was conducted to assess the association between bonding
and bridging social capital and non-agricultural integration practices among smallholders. The
analysis revealed significant associations for both bonding and bridging social capital (p < 0.05)
(Table 10). Smallholders with higher levels of bonding and bridging social capital were
significantly more likely to engage in non-agricultural integration practices compared to those
with lower levels of social capital. These results suggest that both close-knit networks
(bonding) and broader, diverse connections (bridging) play crucial roles in supporting
smallholders' engagement in non-agricultural economic activities.
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Ab Rahman, A. H., Abdullah, A., Johari, M. L., Yusoff, S., & Rasli, F. N. (2024). Social Media Usage and Social Capital as Determinants of Oil Palm
Integration Practices Among Smallholders in East Malaysia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(10). 58-73.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1110.17665
Table 10: Chi-square test of independence of association between level of bonding and
bridging social capital and non-agricultural integration
Non-agricultural integration
No Yes
n (%) n (%) 2 df Sig. (p)
Bonding social capital
Low level 76 51.7 15 31.9 5.59 1 0.018
High level 71 48.3 32 68.1
Bridging social capital
Low level 91 61.9 10 21.3 23.55 1 < 0.001
High level 56 38.1 37 78.7
Factors Influencing the Adoption of Agricultural Integration Practices:
Logistic regression was conducted to examine the influence of factors such as age, education
level, and bonding and bridging social capital on oil palm integration and non-agricultural
integration practices. In the first analysis, the dependent variable was whether the
smallholders practiced oil palm integration, while the independent variables included age,
education level, and levels of bonding and bridging social capital. The summary of this logistic
regression analysis is presented in Table 11.
The results indicated that bridging social capital was the strongest predictor of oil palm
integration, with a coefficient value of B = 0.55. The Exp(B) value of 1.73 suggests that the odds
of practicing agricultural integration increase with higher levels of bridging social capital,
although this relationship was not statistically significant.
In the second analysis, presented in Table 12, the dependent variable was whether
smallholders engaged in non-agricultural integration practices. The results show that bridging
social capital again emerged as the strongest predictor, with a coefficient of B = 1.73 and an
Exp(B) value of 5.64, indicating that smallholders with higher bridging social capital were
significantly more likely to engage in non-agricultural integration practices (p < 0.001).
These findings highlight the importance of social capital, particularly bridging social capital, in
influencing both agricultural and non-agricultural integration practices. Notably, the effects of
age and education level were no longer significant when social capital was accounted for in the
logistic regression model. This suggests that social capital plays a critical role in shaping
integration practices among oil palm smallholders, potentially outweighing traditional
demographic factors.
Table 11: Logistic regression analysis to identify factors that influence the practice of
agricultural integration
95% CI for Exp(B)
Variables B SE Wald df Sig. Exp(B) Lower Upper
Age -0.566 0.358 2.497 1 0.114 0.568 0.281 1.146
Level of education 0.402 0.272 2.183 1 0.140 1.494 0.877 2.545
Bonding social capital 0.106 0.501 0.045 1 0.832 1.112 0.416 2.970
Bridging social capital 0.546 0.538 1.031 1 0.310 1.726 0.602 4.953
Constant 1.337 1.350 0.981 1 0.322 3.809
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Table 12: Logistic regression analysis to identify factors that influence non-agricultural
integration
95% CI for Exp(B)
Variables B SE Wald df Sig. Exp(B) Lower Upper
Age 0.033 0.239 0.019 1 0.891 1.033 0.647 1.651
Level of education 0.464 0.248 3.499 1 0.061 1.590 0.978 2.584
Bonding social capital -0.155 0.434 0.128 1 0.721 0.856 0.366 2.005
Bridging social capital 1.729 0.458 14.271 1 <0.001 5.637 2.298 13.828
Constant -4.965 1.187 17.490 1 <0.001 0.007
DISCUSSION
The results of this study provide important insights into the role of bonding and bridging social
capital among oil palm smallholders in East Malaysia. The findings indicate that 47% of
smallholders possess a high level of bonding social capital, while 52% exhibit low levels.
Notably, smallholders with higher education levels, particularly those holding diplomas,
demonstrated the highest levels of bonding social capital. Additionally, the duration of social
media usage, specifically WhatsApp, was found to significantly influence both bonding and
bridging social capital. Smallholders who had been using WhatsApp for five years or more
showed significantly higher levels of both forms of social capital.
In terms of integration practices, the results revealed a significant association between bridging
social capital and non-agricultural integration practices, such as running small businesses or
providing services beyond agricultural activities. This suggests that smallholders with more
diverse social networks (bridging social capital) are better positioned to diversify their income
streams beyond traditional agriculture. In contrast, no significant relationship was found
between bonding social capital and agricultural integration practices. This supports Putnam’s
[19] distinction between bonding and bridging social capital, where bonding social capital
primarily benefits close-knit groups in achieving collective goals, while bridging social capital
offers access to external resources and opportunities through more diverse, heterogeneous
networks.
The association between social media use and social capital formation is well-established in
previous literature. Ellison [27] were among the first to demonstrate a strong relationship
between Facebook use and both bonding and bridging social capital. In line with their findings,
this study shows that social media platforms like WhatsApp can serve as critical tools for
building and maintaining social capital among smallholders. Furthermore, Lee et al. [28]
emphasized the differential roles of various Facebook features in fostering bonding and
bridging social capital, which echoes the importance of social media literacy highlighted in this
study. Smallholders who effectively use WhatsApp for communication and networking are
better positioned to leverage their social capital for non-agricultural integration practices.
While there is extensive research on the benefits of social capital in agriculture, studies focusing
specifically on the interplay between social media usage, social capital, and agricultural
integration practices are still limited. However, past studies have consistently shown that social
capital plays a pivotal role in enhancing agricultural productivity. For instance, Poli [29]
demonstrated that higher levels of social capital, particularly in the form of information sharing,
significantly improved agricultural efficiency among smallholders in India. Similarly, Saint Ville
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Ab Rahman, A. H., Abdullah, A., Johari, M. L., Yusoff, S., & Rasli, F. N. (2024). Social Media Usage and Social Capital as Determinants of Oil Palm
Integration Practices Among Smallholders in East Malaysia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(10). 58-73.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1110.17665
[30] found that social capital facilitated knowledge flow and community innovation in rural
farming communities, with "farmer friends" and agricultural officers serving as key sources of
new agricultural knowledge.
Cofre-Bravo [31] further highlighted the dual role of bonding and bridging social capital in
supporting smallholder farmers. Their study in Chile showed that bonding social capital,
through close relationships with family and peers, provided emotional and financial support,
while bridging social capital, through connections with agricultural advisors and companies,
facilitated access to new technologies and farm advisory services. These findings align with the
results of this study, where smallholders with higher levels of bridging social capital were more
likely to engage in non-agricultural integration, benefiting from a broader range of external
resources and opportunities.
CONCLUSIONS
This study provides critical insights into the role of social capital, particularly bridging social
capital, in shaping non-agricultural integration practices among oil palm smallholders in East
Malaysia. The findings demonstrate that smallholders with higher levels of bridging social
capital are more likely to diversify their income streams through non-agricultural activities
such as retail businesses and services. This highlights the importance of broad social networks,
which offer access to external resources, knowledge, and opportunities that facilitate economic
diversification and resilience.
Social media plays a pivotal role in enhancing both bonding and bridging social capital, with
platforms such as WhatsApp acting as key facilitators for expanding social networks.
Smallholders who have used social media for longer periods are more likely to have stronger
social capital, underscoring the importance of promoting social media literacy to enhance
integration practices. The results also align with previous studies that emphasize the role of
digital platforms in building social capital, which in turn fosters economic innovation and
sustainability in agricultural contexts.
Despite the valuable contributions of this study, certain limitations must be acknowledged. The
sample, drawn predominantly from longhouse occupants in Bintulu, may not fully represent
the diversity of smallholders across Malaysia. Furthermore, the study focused on areas with
better internet coverage, which may have influenced the findings related to social media usage.
Future research should aim to include a broader geographic scope and a more heterogeneous
sample to provide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between social capital,
social media, and oil palm integration.
Moreover, this study only measured smallholders' ability to access and communicate through
social media as indicators of social capital, without addressing their capacity to analyze and
evaluate information. Expanding future studies to include these cognitive dimensions of social
capital could offer deeper insights into how smallholders utilize social media to improve their
agricultural practices.
This study adds to the growing body of literature on the intersection of social capital and
agriculture by demonstrating the significant influence of bridging social capital, enhanced
through social media, on non-agricultural integration practices. The findings underscore the
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need for policy interventions aimed at improving social media literacy and expanding social
networks to support the economic diversification and sustainability of smallholders. Future
research should continue to explore the mechanisms through which social capital and digital
technologies drive agricultural innovation and resilience among smallholder communities.
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