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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 11, No. 7
Publication Date: July 25, 2024
DOI:10.14738/assrj.117.17325.
Johari, F. S., Ahmad, S. N. A., Bashirun, S. N., Zolkapli, N. M., & Samudin, N. M. R. (2024). Flexible Work Arrangements, Job
Satisfaction and Family Satisfaction: The Spillover Effect of Work-Family Conflict. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal,
11(7). 274-287.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Flexible Work Arrangements, Job Satisfaction and Family
Satisfaction: The Spillover Effect of Work-Family Conflict
Farah Shazlin Johari
Faculty of Business and Management,
Universiti Teknologi MARA; Malacca
Siti Nurul Akma Ahmad
Faculty of Business and Management,
Universiti Teknologi MARA; Malacca
Siti Norashikin Bashirun
Faculty of Business and Management,
Universiti Teknologi MARA; Malacca
Nurhafizah Mohd Zolkapli
Faculty of Business and Management,
Universiti Teknologi MARA; Malacca
Nor Maslia Rasli Samudin
Faculty of Business and Management,
Universiti Teknologi MARA; Malacca
ABSTRACT
Since its beginning, the pandemic has forced many organizations to adopt new
norms, offering more flexible work arrangements. Yet, there is limited knowledge
on how these arrangements, particularly flextime, could affect the work-family
conflict (WFC) and its consequences on both job and family satisfaction. Despite
this, there has been limited research on the spillover effect of WFC, concentrating
on cross-domain effects on both job and family satisfaction in Eastern culture.
Hence, the aim of this study is to investigate the spillover effect of WFC on job and
family satisfaction among academicians from selected Malaysian public
universities. The web-based survey questionnaire was employed, and statistical
analyses were performed using SPSS software. Flextime was found to have a
significant negative association with both WIF and FIW. Furthermore, the findings
revealed that WIF has a stronger spillover effect on cross-domains, notably family
satisfaction. FIW has a greater impact on its own domain specificity, namely family
satisfaction. Thus, the study contributes to our understanding of the spillover effect
of WFC on cross-domains, particularly in Eastern contextual cultures, and helps to
provide additional insight into family-friend policies intended to reduce the
occurrence of WFC, leading to a better balance of work and personal
responsibilities.
Keywords: Flexible Work Arrangements, Work-Family Conflict, Job Satisfaction, Family
Satisfactions, Spillover Effect.
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Johari, F. S., Ahmad, S. N. A., Bashirun, S. N., Zolkapli, N. M., & Samudin, N. M. R. (2024). Flexible Work Arrangements, Job Satisfaction and Family
Satisfaction: The Spillover Effect of Work-Family Conflict. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(7). 274-287.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.117.17325
INTRODUCTION
Today, most organizations have changed their work arrangements to be more adaptable and
flexible in a competitive environment. Beginning with the Covid-19 pandemic, which has had a
significant impact on how people work, most organizations find it challenging to carry out their
routine operations, affecting a wide range of business processes [1]. The pandemic has not only
disrupted the entire operation, but it has also dramatically affected the workforce, ushering in
a new era of employment [2]. As such, most businesses are considering flexible work
arrangements (FWA) as an alternative to the new norm, leading to the shift of most jobs to
online and remote work.
Generally, FWA refers to work options that allow for flexibility in terms of “where” work is
completed (flexplace) and “when” work is completed (flextime) [3]. Some empirical evidence
consistently indicates that FWA is associated with improved work-life balance, job satisfaction,
and employee engagement [4, 5]. Furthermore, FWA is seen as an important factor in reducing
absenteeism and enhancing organizational productivity [6, 7]. Despite this, FWA, specifically
flextime, could also have a substantial impact on a higher level of work-family conflict since it
blurs the boundaries between work and family life, leading to increased interference between
these two domains [8, 9, 10].
On the other hand, WFC is often referred to as incompatible interferences between the
individual’s work and family roles [11]. Prior studies continuously addressed this notion using
two key indicators; work interference with family (WIF) and family interference with work
(FIW) [12, 13, 14]. And, WFC is not only contributing to poor job satisfaction, performance, and
well-being [15, 16] however, it also possesses the spillover effect on cross-domains such as life
and family satisfaction [17]. During the pandemic, most employees experienced great
challenges balancing work and family. Particularly, in the tertiary education sector, lectures and
tutorials have had to be moved online swiftly, resulting in most academicians shifting to new
norms in managing workloads [18]. Academicians who have been observed to work
extraordinarily long hours and late nights (including weekends and holidays) may be
negatively impacted by WFC [19, 20]. It is because, they have the inability to detach from work
[21] and have failed to fulfil both personal and professional responsibilities [22].
Therefore, our study adds three new perspectives to the existing literature. First, we contribute
to the current understanding of work-family conflict research by adding the effect of flexible
work arrangements on WFC during a pandemic outbreak, whereas prior research studied it
differently. Second, the current study investigates the spillover effect of WFC on both job
satisfaction and family satisfaction (i.e., cross-domains: work to family and family to work
domains), while previous studies have largely looked at the effect of WFC on work-related
domains exclusively. Finally, the study sheds light on perspectives from an Eastern contextual
culture where research on the spillover effect of WFC is limited, particularly among Malaysian
academicians that emphasize high collectivist and power distance values that differ from
Western individualistic and low power distance cultures [23].
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Theoretically, we draw on boundary theory, which posits that individuals create discrete
boundaries between their work and family domains to deal with the demands of each sphere
[24]. This distinction enables individuals to maintain a sense of balance and separation
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between the multiple roles they occupy (such as work and family roles). When there are clear
boundaries between work and family roles, flexible work arrangements (FWA) seem to offer
employees more control over their time and work environment. This situation enables
employees to better manage their responsibilities in both domains, and resulting FWA helps to
lessen work-family conflict among them. However, if not managed appropriately, FWA can
cause work to spill into family time where there are no obvious boundaries.
Furthermore, the boundary theory acknowledges that these boundaries can be permeable,
resulting in spillover effects from work to non-work domains. The spillover process outlines
how the intra-individuals transmit strains or emotions across domains [25], with transmission
occurring at work potentially spilling over to the family domains. So that, when boundaries
between work and family roles are permeable, work is more likely to interfere with family
responsibilities, and vice versa. In a nutshell, the spillover process describes how expectations
from one role frequently result in poor performance and low satisfaction in other roles.
Following the concept of cross-domain effects [26, 27], we argue that WIF is highly connected
with family-related outcomes, whereas FIW is more strongly associated with work-related
outcomes than family-related domains.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Flexible Work Arrangements and Work-Family Conflict
As changing patterns in work environments necessitate greater flexibility, the FWA is widely
acknowledged as a new norm for working arrangements, leading to favourable outcomes for
both individuals and organizations. FWA provides employees with flexibility in how, when, and
where they work, including hybrid work, telecommuting, a compressed workweek, and
flextime. A meta-analysis found that FWA is associated with fewer physical health issues, less
somatic symptoms, and reduced absenteeism, suggesting that FWA can help employees
maintain their health [28].
Despite this, some studies have extensively investigated the effect of FWA on WFC, notably in
Western literature [29, 30]. The uneven boundaries of FWA when working remotely from the
office have caused conflict among family members. Even though some scholars claim that FWA
does not directly affect WFC [8], others argue that FWA such as telecommuting, taking work
home, having flexible hours, and taking a family leave are negatively associated with WFC
among employees [31, 32]. To support this notion, FWA is more highly associated with WFC,
specifically work interference with family (WIF), than family interference with work (FIW) [13,
14]. Empirical evidence confirms that flextime has a stronger relationship with WIF [33]
compared to its FIW counterparts [12, 13].
Nevertheless, the FWA is considered uncommon in Eastern working cultures, particularly in
Malaysia. Even though some organizations sought to establish FWA, especially at the beginning
of the pandemic, flextime appears to be a more viable alternative than flexplace arrangements.
Employers may prefer flextime because it provides greater control and effective management.
To date, studies on FWA and WFC have primarily concentrated on traditional working
arrangements [33], with few studies focusing on FWA, specifically flextime, during a pandemic
outbreak involving academicians with an Eastern cultural background. Therefore, we propose
the following hypotheses:
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Johari, F. S., Ahmad, S. N. A., Bashirun, S. N., Zolkapli, N. M., & Samudin, N. M. R. (2024). Flexible Work Arrangements, Job Satisfaction and Family
Satisfaction: The Spillover Effect of Work-Family Conflict. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(7). 274-287.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.117.17325
• Hypothesis 1: flextime arrangements negatively associated to work interference with
family
• Hypothesis 2: flextime arrangements negatively associated to family interference with
work
Work-Family Conflict, Job Satisfaction and Family Satisfaction
Work and family conflict (WFC) are consistently interrelated regardless of the nature of work
[34] and ultimately affect the imbalance of fulfilment between employees, family members, and
organizations. WFC refers to incompatible interferences between the individual’s work and
family roles [11]. Western scholars reveal that conflicts between work and family will arise
when employees spend too much time on the job [35]. These conflicts subsequently result in
significant influences on the spillover process from work (e.g., performance, turnover,
emotional exhaustion, and well-being) to non-work-related domains (e.g., life and family
satisfaction) [17].
As previously mentioned, the literature has widely discussed two types of WFC; WIF and FIW,
each having its own set of occurrences and outcomes [36, 37]. Both WIF and FIW were classified
as time-based, strain-based, and behavior-based [38]. Time-based conflict occurs when the
time spent on one function makes it difficult to participate in another, such as working overtime
or long hours, which affects family time allocation [39, 40]. While strain-based conflict occurs
when one role’s function interferes with another, particularly when work-related weariness
during the day impairs an individual’s capacity to play with children at home. Finally, behavior- based conflict develops when particular behaviors necessitated in one function do not match
expectations in another [38, 39], such as a leadership approach that is not feasible at home
while engaging with family members.
Particularly when individuals perceive a high level of WIF or FIW, their energy and effort are
reduced, and they may then become aggrieved and create troubles for the job itself or the
organization [41]. WIF is a common issue among employees and has a significant spillover
impact on family life compared to FIW [42]. WIF often causes conflict between work and family
[43], resulting from greater work stressors [44, 45, 46]. Frequently, work stressors have a
different impact on WIF, especially involving working women [47], as they have tight schedule
flexibility or job autonomy.
Contradictory, Zhao et al. [11] claim that FIW is considered the main barrier among employees
to achieving career success as they perceive family roles as non-negotiable. Family-related
issues brought into the workplace often trigger counterproductive work behavior, which can
harm job performance and reduce job satisfaction [14]. In this sense, both of the above- mentioned situations empirically indicated that the spillover effects are highly associated with
WIF and non-work-related domains, such as life and family satisfaction. While the spillover
effect between FIW is highly associated with work-related domains. Despite this, cultural
beliefs may have a significant influence on how work and family responsibilities are allocated
[48]. Therefore, the current study suggests the following hypotheses:
• Hypothesis 3: WIF has a stronger negative association with family satisfaction than job
satisfaction
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• Hypothesis 4: FIW has a stronger negative association with job satisfaction than family
satisfaction
Figure 1: Proposed Framework
METHODS
Sample and Procedure
The current study used a cross-sectional research design involving full-time academicians from
selected Malaysia public universities. Using a web-based survey, this study employed a
purposive approach because participation rates among Malaysians are very low if using other
sampling approaches. Out of 250 web-based surveys distributed via email, 155 academicians
returned the questionnaires, obtaining a total response rate of 62%. In general, most
participants were female (89.6%), with most aged between 35 – 39 (38%) and 30 – 34 (24%)
years. The majority of participants were married (76%) with most of them having 2 (19.8%)
and 3 (20.8%) children respectively.
Measures
Flexible work arrangements. Flextime arrangements were assessed using four-item scale from
Hyland [49]. A sample question is “I change the time that I begin and end my workday due to
personal preferences.” All items were used a five-point Likert scale where 1 = four or five times
per week, 2 = between one and three times per month, 3 = once or twice per month, 4 = less
than once per month and 5 = never.
Work-family conflict. WFC consist of two categories, namely Work-Interference with Family
(WIF) and Family-Interference with Work (FIW). WFC were assessed using six-item scale from
Mathews, Kath and Barness-Farrell [50], an abbreviated version of Carlson, Kacmar and
Williams’s [38] multidimensional measure of WFC. Sample questions for WIF and FIW are “I
have to miss family activities due to the amount of time I must spend on work responsibilities”
and “I have to miss work activities due to the amount of time I must spend on family
responsibilities respectively.” All measured were used a five-point Likert scale where 1 =
strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree.
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Johari, F. S., Ahmad, S. N. A., Bashirun, S. N., Zolkapli, N. M., & Samudin, N. M. R. (2024). Flexible Work Arrangements, Job Satisfaction and Family
Satisfaction: The Spillover Effect of Work-Family Conflict. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(7). 274-287.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.117.17325
Job Satisfaction. Job satisfactions were assessed using the traditional three-item scale from
Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins and Klesh [51]. All three items were measured using a five-point
Likert scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree. A sample question for job
satisfactions is “In general, I like working here.”
Family Satisfaction. Family satisfactions were assessed using three-item scale from Brough et
al. [52]. All three items were measured using a five-point Likert scale where 1 = strongly
disagree and 5 = strongly agree. A sample question for family satisfaction is “In general, I like
my family.”
Common Method Variance
In this study, Harman’s single-factor test was used to assess common method variance. The
statistical remedy was carried out to validate that the common method bias did not pose a
significant threat to the measured data. In conducting research based on self-reported data of
the same person, variations are likely to be problematic [53]. Though Brough and Boase [54]
claimed that self-report is an appropriate research design for evaluating employees’ subjective
experiences with occupational stress, the single-source data and its potential bias remain a
source of concern.
All the measurement items of every construct (flextime, work interference with family, family
interference with work, job satisfaction, and family satisfaction) were included in the unrotated
principal component factor analysis. According to Podsakoff et al. [53], evidence of common
method bias appears when a single factor emerges from the analysis or when one general
component accounts for the majority of the covariance. Common method bias is a significant
concern when a single latent component accounts for more than half of the total variation of
the measurements. In this research, the single-factor model accounted for just 24% of the
overall variation. In short, multiple scale components in this investigation did not load onto a
single common factor, implying that common method bias was not a substantial threat in this
observed data.
Statistical Analyses
All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 28. Pearson bivariate
correlations were performed and preceded the overall analyses. Several regression analyses
were performed for each direct path, including regression of the dependent variable on both
predictors.
RESULTS
Table 1 presents mean, standard deviations, and correlations between measures involving
flextime, WIF, FIW, job satisfaction, and family satisfaction. We used gender and marital status
as control variables in the study. As shown in Table 1, only marital status had a significant
relationship with flextime arrangements and FIW.
In Hypothesis 1 (H1), we predicted that flextime arrangements would have a negative
relationship with both WIF and FIW. As shown in Table 2 (Model 1), we found that flextime
arrangements were negatively related to WIF (β = -.29, SE = .12, p < .05). Thus, H1 was
supported. In Hypothesis 2 (H2), we expected that flextime arrangements would have a
negative relationship with FIW. The result shows that (see Model 2), flextime arrangements
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were negatively related to FIW (β = -.33, SE = .11, p < .01). Thus, it indicates that H2 was
supported.
With reference to Hypothesis 3 (H3), which proposes that WIF has a stronger negative
association with family satisfaction than job satisfaction. From the results, we found that WIF
has a greater negative spillover effect on family satisfaction (Model 7; β = -.16, SE = .06, p <
.001), than job satisfaction. Therefore, H3 was supported. While Hypothesis 4 suggested that
FIW had a more significant negative association with job satisfaction than family satisfaction.
However, the results indicate that FIW had a stronger spillover effect on the same domain,
which is family satisfaction FIW (Model 8; β = -.14, SE = .06, p < .01), indicating that H4 was
rejected.
DISCUSSION
The current study aims to gain a better understanding of how flexible work arrangements
(FWA) during a pandemic outbreak affect both WIF and FIW, resulting in a spillover effect on
cross-domains, including work-related and non-work-related aspects. We contend that WIF
had a greater spillover effect on non-work domains (i.e., family satisfaction) than on work- related domains (i.e., job satisfaction). While FIW has a greater spillover effect on job
satisfaction than on family satisfaction. Despite a plethora of WFC research, the study was
undertaken during a pandemic among academicians from Eastern contextual cultures in order
to better understand the spillover effects of WFC on both job satisfaction and family
satisfaction. Even though the overall findings appear to be consistent with previous studies in
Western literature, some of them are conflicting and correspond to Eastern cultures.
With regard to direct hypotheses, we found that flextime arrangements have a negative
association with both WIF and FIW. These findings corroborated prior studies indicating that
high levels of flextime arrangements are significantly associated with lower levels of WIF [33,
55, 56, 57] and FIW [55, 57], respectively. However, we found interesting findings in which
flextime arrangements have a stronger negative effect on FIW than WIF. This indicates that
Eastern societies often incorporate both work and non-work domains, as they believe work is
necessary for the survival of the family. Then, family members are probably more
understanding if work is carried out at home, implying that the family domain is more adaptive
than the work domain [37].
Table 1: Means, standard deviations and Pearson bivariate correlations
Variables α M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Gender - 1.9 0.31 1
Marital status - 1.78 0.44 0.063 1
Flextime 0.84 3 0.75 -0.08 -.214* 1
WIF 0.89 3.33 0.89 0.061 0.139 -.244* 1
FIW 0.97 3.01 0.88 0.146 .259* -.335** .642** 1
JS 0.97 4.23 0.89 -0.044 -0.112 .239* -.216* -.247* 1
FS 0.85 4.61 0.44 0.006 0.005 0.088 -.322** -.261* .563** 1
Note: +p <.10 * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001, JS = job satisfaction, FS = family satisfaction
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Johari, F. S., Ahmad, S. N. A., Bashirun, S. N., Zolkapli, N. M., & Samudin, N. M. R. (2024). Flexible Work Arrangements, Job Satisfaction and Family
Satisfaction: The Spillover Effect of Work-Family Conflict. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(7). 274-287.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.117.17325
Table 2: Direct effects between variables
Variables WIF FIW JS JS JS FS FS FS
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8
Gender .11(.29) .32(.74) -.04(.17) -.05(.17) -.12(.17) .02(.15) .03(.14) .06(.15)
Marital
status
.18(.21) .38(.20) + -.08(.12) -.10(.12) -.61(.12) .02(.11) .05(.10) .08(.10)
Flextime -.26(.12)
*
-.33(.11)
**
.16(.07)
*
.06(.06)
WIF -.13(.06)
*
-.16(.05)
***
FIW -.14(.06)
*
-.14(.05)
**
R2 0.263 0.401 0.248 0.293 0.252 0.233 0.327 0.275
∆ R2 0.069 0.161 0.061 0.086 0.064 0.054 0.107 0.076
Note: The first value is the unstandardized parameter estimate; the value in parentheses is the standard error
(SE); +p <.10 * p < .05, ** p < .01, ***p < .001, JS = job satisfaction, FS = family satisfaction
Concerning the spillover effect, the study confirmed that WIF has a greater impact on family
satisfaction than job satisfaction. Thus, these findings are consistent with prior meta-analyses
that contend that WFC outcomes, particularly WIF, have stronger spillover effects on cross- domains such as family satisfaction [26, 27]. Despite a plethora of research on the effect of WIF
on specific domains, the findings suggest that the attribution perspective, in which individuals
favor contributing more negative effects to the domain where the interferences come from [58],
could also shift in the opposite direction [17]. We believe that, when employees have a heavy
workload at work, it can dramatically blur the boundaries between work and home life,
potentially leading to family dissatisfaction.
On the other hand, our study found an unexpected finding in which FIW is more prevalent in its
own specific domain, family satisfaction. Based on the assumption of a cross-domain effect,
work-related domains contribute a substantial degree of variance in family satisfaction,
whereas family-related domains contribute a significant degree of variation in job satisfaction
[26]. So that, FIW should have a greater spillover impact on job satisfaction, but our findings
indicate otherwise. Despite this, numerous studies have consistently shown that FIW has a
greater impact on family satisfaction, implying that it spills over on domain specificity [59, 60].
Indeed, some studies of Eastern culture suggest that Asian employees typically place the
priorities of family over individual interests, with work serving as a trade for family is
continued existence rather than pursuing individual career advancements [61, 62].
RESEARCH AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
Despite a plethora of research investigating the effect of WFC on its domain specificity, such as
work-to-work versus family-to-family-related outcomes, this study provides a different
perspective on the spillover effect of WFC on both outcomes. In terms of theoretical
contribution, the current findings suggest that both WIF and FIW are consistently regarded as
mechanisms that link to spillover processes across multiple domains (i.e., cross-domains),
including job satisfaction and family satisfaction.
Even though the study’s findings support the boundary theory, in which academicians are more
likely to establish boundaries between work and family responsibilities during the pandemic,
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it appears that only WIF can provide the spillover effect on cross-domain, particularly family
satisfaction. While FIW only considers the spillover effect in specific domains, which indicates
that cultural values in Eastern societies, have a substantial impact on family satisfaction since
they are more family-oriented due to strong collectivist attitudes. Thus, the study contributes
to existing knowledge on the spillover effect, particularly in collectivist cultures that may differ
from Western societies with individualistic values.
Furthermore, the study offers several practical implications for the organization in terms of
developing a family-friends policy, which can help policymakers design a more accommodating
work environment. Better flexible work arrangements, such as flextime or flexplace, could help
to lessen WFC challenges and, subsequently, help employees manage their work stress more
effectively while fulfilling both professional and personal responsibilities.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS
The result of this study should be considered in light of several limitations. First, the response
rate from the academicians’ survey was lower than expected, limiting the generalizability of the
findings. A larger sample size would have allowed for a more robust result. Second, the current
study relies on cross-sectional data to make inferences about employee behavior and its effect
on job satisfaction and family satisfaction. Despite the fact that we used statistical remedies to
compensate for common method variance for the current study, this limitation should be
counterbalanced by using a better research design, such as a longitudinal design. Third, this
study used commonly self-reported nature of data. Following research could avoid this problem
by collecting the variables independently, such as from their children, spouse and colleague by
using multisource data.
Future research might focus on other outcomes such as work productivity; turn over, intention,
and mental health effects among academicians in addition to the typical outcomes of job
satisfaction. In addition, future research could replicate this study using longitudinal design
data that would have the advantage of testing for causality, limiting inherent bias from cross- sectional studies, and testing the mediated models [63]. Additionally, the study also opens
avenues for future research, such as the need to explore other variables or other potential
mediators that could help to determine the job and family satisfaction of academics and to
investigate the issue of WFC from different position levels in university.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the aim of our study was to investigate the spillover effect of WFC within the
association of FWA on job satisfaction and family satisfaction among academicians during the
pandemic. Hence, this study has made significant contributions to existing knowledge on the
spillover effect of WFC on cross-domains, notably in Eastern societies. Academicians play an
important role in delivering their lectures via online approaches; thus, it is critical to
understand if they are satisfied with their commitment and if WFC is considered a negative
issue that influences their job satisfaction and family satisfaction. Finally, the study’s findings
are intended to provide more guidance to family-friend policies aimed at reducing the
occurrence of WFC, thereby leading to a better balance of work and personal commitments.
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Johari, F. S., Ahmad, S. N. A., Bashirun, S. N., Zolkapli, N. M., & Samudin, N. M. R. (2024). Flexible Work Arrangements, Job Satisfaction and Family
Satisfaction: The Spillover Effect of Work-Family Conflict. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 11(7). 274-287.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.117.17325
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to extend their gratitude to Universiti Teknologi MARA, Melaka for
funding this research through TEJA Grant 2020 (GDT2020-8) which has funded this research
project.
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