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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 10, No. 11
Publication Date: November 25, 2023
DOI:10.14738/assrj.1011.15823.
Abrefa-Gyan, T. & Fakunmoju, S. B. (2023). Educational Disparities in Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs: Examining Gender Interaction
Among Respondents in Ghana. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(11). 172-182.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Educational Disparities in Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs:
Examining Gender Interaction Among Respondents in Ghana
Tina Abrefa-Gyan
Department of Social Work, Delaware State University,
Delaware, United States
Sunday B. Fakunmoju
Department of Social Work, Westfield State University,
Massachusetts, United States and Department of Social
Work, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
ABSTRACT
Within various societies, individuals harbor gender stereotypes and beliefs that
frequently shape perceptions and behaviors within intimate relationships.
However, the extent to which individuals endorse or reject these stereotypes
remains insufficiently explored. This study, utilizing a convenience sample of 303
respondents in Ghana, examined the interaction effects of gender on the
relationship between educational background and gender stereotypes and
beliefs—specifically focusing on the sexual submissiveness of women, emotional
stereotypes about women, and sexual stereotypes about men. The results indicate
an effect of gender in the relationships. Notably, ratings regarding emotional
stereotypes about women were significantly higher among male respondents with
a bachelor's degree, while being lowest among female respondents with a post- graduate degree. Similarly, ratings for sexual stereotypes about men were notably
highest among female respondents with a bachelor's degree and lowest among
female respondents with a post-graduate degree. Concerning beliefs about the
sexual submissiveness of women, respondents with less than a bachelor's degree
(i.e., high school/diploma) were more prone to endorse sexual submissiveness
compared to those with a bachelor's or post-graduate degree. Additionally, men
were more likely to endorse sexual submissiveness of women compared to women.
The implications of these findings for theory, research, and policy are discussed.
Keywords: Stereotypes, Gender Stereotypes, Emotional Stereotypes, Sexual Stereotypes,
Sexual Submissiveness.
INTRODUCTION
Gender stereotypes permeate every facet of life, having been developed through patriarchy to
regulate behaviors and interactions. These stereotypes derive from roles, responsibilities,
norms, as well as biological, cultural, religious, and traditional expectations. Broadly applied
across genders, they magnify the behavioral dispositions and expectations of both men and
women. These stereotypes can be consciously or unconsciously held and may carry positive or
negative connotations. For instance, some common beliefs include that “women are warm,
friendly, and caring, whereas men are competent, confident, and assertive... women are overly
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Abrefa-Gyan, T. & Fakunmoju, S. B. (2023). Educational Disparities in Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs: Examining Gender Interaction Among
Respondents in Ghana. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(11). 172-182.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1011.15823
emotional, irrational, and incompetent, whereas men are hot-tempered, violent, and lack
empathy” (Casad & Wexler, 2017, p. 756). Stereotypes come with both attitudinal and
behavioral expectations, potentially leading to psychological distress, including feelings of
anxiety, shame, fear, stigmatization, and discrimination. This is especially true when individuals
deviate significantly from these stereotypes (Ali & Adshead, 2022). While the effects of certain
stereotypes have been explored, there is still limited understanding, particularly regarding how
personal characteristics influence the acceptance or rejection of such stereotypes and beliefs.
Ghanaian Cultural Context
The complex interplay of culture, religion, and tradition offers insight into the prevalence of
gender stereotypes and beliefs in Ghana. Socialization adheres to a patriarchal norm that
subjugates women and empowers men. From early childhood, children are molded into
traditional gender roles. Men are tasked with responsibilities outside the home, assuming
leadership in households and asserting dominance in relationships. Women, on the other hand,
are burdened with domestic duties, caregiving, and taught to submit to male authority.
Adherence to these roles is rewarded, with deviations resulting in physical, economic, and
emotional repercussions.
Family dynamics emphasize respect for elders and conformity to established norms. Ghana's
religious diversity, encompassing traditional beliefs, Christianity, and Islam, significantly
influences gender roles and expectations. Despite strides in providing equal educational
opportunities, persistent gender disparities in economic opportunities and preferential
support for male education reinforce stereotypes.
While urbanization, globalization, increased access to information, and legal protections for
women contribute to changing perceptions of gender, the grip of religion and biased portrayals
of women in the media reinforce oppressive stereotypes. Exposure to violence-supportive
attitudes extends beyond socialization to include violence against women. The widespread
experience of violence in intimate relationships among women in Ghana (Owusu Adjah &
Agbemafle, 2016) may be partly attributed to gender-biased roles, differential socialization,
and prevailing stereotypes and beliefs.
BACKGROUND
Social Role Theory, Gender, and Educational Background
Social role theory proposes that traditional gender roles, norms, and stereotypes arise from the
division of labor between males and females and shape perceptions, behaviors, and attitudes
that are perpetuated in social interactions (Eagly et al., 2000; Eagly & Wood, 2012; Lynch,
2007). By being socially constructed and internalized, traditional and culturally prescribed
gender roles and responsibilities impact various aspects of lives and choices made in social
relationships (Eagly et al., 2000; Eagly & Wood, 2012; Lynch, 2007). A key arena and setting
where individuals adopt positions and social roles involving the internalization of norms and
the performance of expected behaviors is educational setting. Exposure to educational
environments significantly impacts the adoption of stereotypical views, beliefs, and ideologies.
Education plays a multifaceted role in shaping gender stereotypes and beliefs. From the
selection of courses and interactions with peers to the acquisition of knowledge and exposure
experiences, education collectively molds perceptions of men and women. Additionally,
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education influences the endorsement or rejection of violence-supportive stereotypes and
beliefs, the internalization of gender norms, and the manifestation of masculine ideologies. It
also contributes to the evaluation of previously socialized and internalized masculine
ideologies. Importantly, these influences may differ based on gender, reflecting variations in
socialization experiences and the internalization of gender roles and expectations.
Regrettably, internalization of gender norms and roles is incomplete without performance.
According to social role theory, individuals actively engage in behaviors aligned with their roles
through role performance (Eagly et al., 2000; Eagly & Wood, 2012; Lynch, 2007). This is
especially pertinent in education, where enrollment in an academic program exposes
individuals to the internalization and performance of gender roles and stereotypes specific to
their academic context. For example, enrolling in male-dominated educational majors may
expose individuals to oppressive gender stereotypes, potentially leading to internalization.
Conversely, enrollment in gender-diverse educational majors can shape views and socialize
individuals into gender-supportive ideologies. Education and educational settings provide
exposure to diverse perspectives, reinforcing or challenging traditional gender stereotypes and
fostering gender-supportive attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Educational settings play a crucial role in socializing individuals to perpetuate or refine
prevailing gender roles, norms, and stereotypes. Interactions with faculty and peers expose
individuals to different perspectives, enabling them to evaluate traditional gender stereotypes,
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Social role theory suggests that individuals who receive
validation of their internalized traditional gender norms during their educational journey may
be encouraged to carry these expectations into future endeavors. Conversely, exposure to
alternative perspectives can prompt individuals to reconsider and change their views,
attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors regarding gender roles and expectations.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Effects of Gender and Education on Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes and beliefs continue to play a significant role as precursors to gender-based
violence, influencing victimization, perpetration, and perceptions for both men and women.
Recent studies have underscored the impact of personal factors, specifically gender, the gender
system, and educational background, on the endorsement of proviolence behaviors against
women (Murray et al., 2023; Olszewska et al., 2023; Simon et al., 2001). Personal and
psychosocial attributes of women, including lower levels of education, have been linked to
inclinations to justify rape or sexual violence against women (Nadeem & Shahed, 2017; Murray
et al., 2023; Olszewska et al., 2023). Empirical evidence continues to accumulate, highlighting
the influence of both gender and educational background on perceptions of gender stereotypes
and gender-based violence.
Similar to gender, education stands out as a key factor in mitigating gender stereotypes, playing
a significant role in diminishing their endorsement while fostering heightened rejection of
oppressive and suppressive stereotypes against women. A recent study highlights that for
women from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, education lowers the likelihood of
agreeing with traditional gender norms by more than 11 percentage points (Rivera-Garrido,
2022, p. 1). Additionally, a recent study suggests that education promotes “more egalitarian
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Abrefa-Gyan, T. & Fakunmoju, S. B. (2023). Educational Disparities in Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs: Examining Gender Interaction Among
Respondents in Ghana. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(11). 172-182.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1011.15823
gender role attitudes,” particularly “among females and urban residents” (Du et al., 2021, p.
475).
The mechanism by which education influences gender-role attitudes can be explained through
various potential factors. Primarily, education has the capacity to alter individuals' thought
processes, fostering more tolerant perspectives towards women (Rivera-Garrido, 2022). Those
who have less education may be predisposed to endorsing gender-role attitudes than those
who have higher education. Similarly, education expands economic opportunities and
employment prospects in ways that facilitate economic independence (Rivera-Garrido, 2022).
In fact, a past study in Ghana identified post-secondary school education as a protective factor
for violence against women (Owusu Adjah & Agbemafle, 2016). Individuals with improved
economic prospects and greater economic independence due to education may encounter
positive experiences that foster enlightenment and contribute to the rejection of gender-role
attitudes and stereotypes. In general, the exposure to diverse perspectives and the acquisition
of critical thinking skills in higher education can empower individuals to question and
repudiate traditional gender roles and stereotypes. Education serves as a catalyst for shaping
perceptions of gender roles, fostering egalitarian attitudes, rejecting gender-based biases and
traditional gender stereotypes and beliefs, and embracing gender equality across different
cultural contexts.
Gaps in the Literature
Despite the significant strides made in research on gender stereotypes and gender-based
violence, more remains to be unraveled, particularly regarding how educational experiences
intersect with gender stereotypes or how stereotypes vary across educational backgrounds. At
present, the majority of studies on gender stereotypes were conducted in developed societies
with limited focus on the Ghanaian cultural context, where traditional gender roles and
expectations prevail, and the pursuit of egalitarianism remains relatively tamed and elusive.
Problematic and harmful stereotypes in the form of sexual submissiveness of women,
emotional stereotypes about women, and sexual stereotypes about men remain relatively
unexplored, despite their influence on proviolent perceptions and behaviors against women.
Endorsement of beliefs about sexual submissiveness of women and sexual stereotypes about
men has serious consequences for sexual violence against women, as they influence men’s
perceptions of ownership of female sexuality (Fakunmoju et al., 2021). Similarly, beliefs about
emotional stereotypes of women influence the extent to which reports of violence experienced
by women will not be accorded the needed attention. Exploring these gender stereotypes,
particularly their variations among individuals with varying educational backgrounds, may
generate knowledge that could inform targeted interventions and policies that will curb the
effects of internalization and manifestations of the stereotypes.
Research Aims, Objectives, and Questions
The primary aim of this study is to examine the intersecting influences of educational
backgrounds on gender stereotypes and beliefs among respondents in Ghana. Specifically, it
aims to investigate how respondents with varying educational backgrounds endorse or reject
emotional stereotypes of women, sexual submissiveness of women, and sexual stereotypes
about men. The study will also explore the interactive effects of gender on these differences.
Additionally, variations in gender stereotypes and beliefs between male and female
respondents will be examined. Findings from the examinations will facilitate an understanding
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of how educational experiences in Ghana contribute to the endorsement or rejection of gender
stereotypes and beliefs. They will also provide insights into interventions that could influence
attitudes towards gender roles, dismantle stereotypes, and promote gender equity.
The Study Aims to Answer the Following Research Questions
• Research Question 1: Are there variations in the endorsement of emotional
stereotypes about women based on educational background, and does the endorsement
differ across different gender levels? Specifically, does gender play a moderating role in
the relationship between educational background and emotional stereotypes about
women?
• Research Question 2: Does the endorsement of sexual stereotypes about men vary
based on educational background, and does this endorsement differ across genders? In
other words, does gender moderate the relationship between educational background
and sexual stereotypes about men?
• Research Question 3: Are there differences in the endorsement of beliefs about the
sexual submissiveness of women based on both educational background and gender?
Justifications and Motivations
The motivation for this study arises from the recognition of an evident research gap concerning
the impact of gender and educational backgrounds on gender stereotypes and beliefs. The study
finds its justification in the potential to contribute valuable insights for targeted interventions
and policies aimed at promoting gender equity and preventing detrimental stereotypes against
women. By emphasizing the study's potential, efforts in education, advocacy, and awareness
can be directed towards nurturing dialogues on gender dynamics, education, and stereotypes,
thus addressing current disparities. Furthermore, the study holds the promise of offering
empirical support for the theoretical applicability of social role theory in comprehending
gender stereotypes and beliefs within the context of Ghana.
METHODOLOGY
Design
Respondents (N = 333) from two regions in Ghana completed the survey: some respondents
participated in an online survey using SurveyMonkey.comTM and others completed the paper
and pencil format of the survey. The link to the survey was shared with university students at
two universities in Ghana; the students were encouraged to complete the survey online and
share the link with colleagues who may be interested in participating in the study. The link was
equally shared with nonstudent respondents who agreed to participate in the study. To reach
participants that did not have access to the internet, a paper and pencil version was distributed
to respondents in another region of the country, where the online version of the survey was
equally completed. Additional information about the survey was reported in a previous study.
Participants
Respondents (N = 303) were males (n = 154, 50.8%) and females (n = 149, 49.2%) with an
average age of 31.10 years (SD = 10.68 years, range 19–61). More than half were single (n =
155, 51.2%) and the remaining were married, separated, divorced or widowed (n = 148,
48.8%). The majority were nonstudent (n = 181, 60.1%) who have lower than bachelor degree
(n = 156, 52.1%) as their educational background with the remaining comprising those who
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Abrefa-Gyan, T. & Fakunmoju, S. B. (2023). Educational Disparities in Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs: Examining Gender Interaction Among
Respondents in Ghana. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(11). 172-182.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1011.15823
reported bachelor (n = 66, 21.8%) and post-graduate degree and above bachelor (n = 79,
26.1%) as their educational background.
Measures
Gender stereotypes and beliefs were operationalized using Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs
Scale (GESTABE). GESTABE consisted of 16 items that measure beliefs about sexual
submissiveness of women (4 items), emotional stereotypes about women (6 items), and sexual
stereotypes about men (6 items).
The Sexual Submissiveness of Women subscale measures the extent to which respondents
endorse sexually abusive behaviors against women or the beliefs that women should be
sexually available at the disposal of men in intimate relationships. It is operationalized with
four questions, such as “A woman should always meet the sexual demands of her man because
her body belongs to him” and “A woman should be sexually submissive to her man.” Cronbach’s
alpha of .81 and .95 was recently reported (Fakunmoju et al., 2016, 2017). In the present study
Cronbach’s alpha was .89.
The Emotional Stereotypes About Women subscale measures the extent to which
respondents endorse the stereotypes that women are emotionally predisposed to attention- seeking behaviors to sustain the attention of men. It is operationalized with six questions, such
as “It is not an exaggeration to suggest that women are conflicted: They act as if they are
miserable with men, yet feel insecure without them” and “A lot of women are vulnerable to
compliments and humor, even from men incapable of winning their affection.” Cronbach’s alpha
of .90 and .92 was recently reported (Fakunmoju et al., 2016, 2017). In the present study
Cronbach’s alpha was .92.
The Sexual Stereotypes About Men subscale measures the extent to which respondents
endorse the stereotypes that men possess sexual traits or desires that are greater than what
could be reasonably satisfied by women. It is operationalized with six questions, such as “A lot
of men are in denial of their insatiable sexual appetite that they keep jumping from a woman to
another” and “Men are so demanding sexually that it is impossible for women to please them.”
Cronbach’s alpha of .85 and .91 was recently reported (Fakunmoju et al., 2016, 2017). In the
present study Cronbach’s alpha was .86. For each item, respondents were asked, “To what
extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements?” Participants responded by
rating each item using a Likert-type scale of Strongly Disagree = 1, Disagree = 2, Neither
Disagree Nor Agree = 3, Agree = 4, or Strongly Agree = 5. Lower scores in the form of Strongly
Disagree indicated greater disapproval of stereotypes and beliefs and higher scores in the form
of Strongly Agree indicated greater endorsement of stereotypes and beliefs.
Data Analysis
A 3 (educational background: lower than bachelor’s degree, bachelor’s degree, post-graduate
degree) x 2 (gender: male, female) between-subjects two-way multiple analysis of variance
(MANOVA) with two dependent variables (i.e., emotional stereotypes about women & sexual
stereotypes about men) was used to determine whether gender stereotypes differed by
educational background and gender (Research Questions 1 and 2). Similarly, a two-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine educational background and gender differences in
the beliefs of sexual submissiveness of women (Research Question 3). For the two-way
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MANOVA, the Scheffe method was used to control for Type I error for the multiple ANOVAs with
the alpha level set at .025 (.05 divided by two dependent variables). The same method was used
to control for Type 1 error for the examined pairwise comparisons in follow-up analyses, with
the alpha level set at .008 (.025 divided by 2 – number of comparisons). For the two-way
ANOVA, the Scheffe method was used to control for Type I error for the examined pairwise
comparisons in follow analyses, with the alpha level set at .0166 (.05 divided by 3 – number of
comparisons). Ipsative mean imputation (Schafer & Graham, 2002) was used to address
missing data, after which listwise deletion was applied to remaining data, resulting in 303 cases
for data analysis. SPSS 25TM (IBM Corp., 2017) was used to analyze the data. The Institutional
Review Board of (name of the university will be disclosed after peer review) approved the
study.
RESULTS
Beliefs about emotional stereotypes against women and sexual stereotypes about men
correlated at r = .528, p < .0005). Using Pillai’s Trace, the interaction effects of educational
background and gender for emotional stereotypes against women and sexual stereotypes about
men were statistically significant, V = .074, F (4, 594) = 5.68, p < .0005, suggesting that
emotional stereotypes against women and sexual stereotypes about men were not the same for
males and females and those with less than bachelor degree, those with bachelor degree, and
those having post-graduate degree and above. Similarly, results of a two-way ANOVA also
indicated a statistically significant main effect for sexual submissiveness of women for
educational background, F (2, 297) = 21.81, p < .0005 and gender, F (1, 297) = 7.64, p = .006.
Interaction Effects of Educational Background and Gender on Emotional Stereotypes
about Women and Sexual Stereotypes about Men
As indicated by the results (Table 1), relationship between educational background and beliefs
about emotional stereotypes about women and sexual stereotypes about men depends on
gender (Research Question 1 & 2). Specifically, ratings on beliefs about emotional stereotypes
about women were significantly highest among respondents having bachelor degree for men
(figure 1), whereas the ratings were significantly lowest among respondents having post- graduate degree for women (figure 1) (p < .0005). Similarly, ratings on beliefs about sexual
stereotypes about men were significantly highest among respondents having bachelor degree
for women (figure 2), whereas the ratings were significantly lowest among respondents having
post-graduate degree for women (figure 2) (p < .0005).
Table 1: Means and Standard Deviations of Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs for
Demographic Characteristics
Variable Sexual submissiveness
M(SD)
Emotional stereotypes
M(SD)
Sexual stereotypes
M(SD)
Gender
Male 2.64 1.14 3.89 .93 3.21 1.01
Female 2.29 1.06 3.55 1.10 3.94 1.02
Educational background
Lower than bachelor 2.83 1.15 3.09 .85 3.53 .89
Bachelor 1.91 .89 4.17 1.02 3.70 1.14
Post-graduate degree 2.20 .95 3.02 1.04 2.70 .88
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Abrefa-Gyan, T. & Fakunmoju, S. B. (2023). Educational Disparities in Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs: Examining Gender Interaction Among
Respondents in Ghana. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(11). 172-182.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1011.15823
Figure 1: Gender effect of the relationship between educational background and emotional
stereotypes
Figure 2: Gender effect of the relationship between educational background and sexual
stereotypes
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Effects of Educational Background and Gender on Beliefs about Sexual Submissiveness
of Women
In response to research question 3, the average scores of respondents with educational
background that is lower than bachelor degree were significantly higher for sexual
submissiveness of women than the average scores of respondents who have bachelor’s and
post-graduate degree (p < .0005). Specifically, those having lower than bachelor’s degree were
more likely to endorse sexual submissiveness of women than those who have bachelor or post- graduate degree (p < .0005). The average scores of men were significantly higher for sexual
submissiveness of women than the average scores of women (p = .006), suggesting that men
were more likely to endorse sexual submissiveness of women than women.
DISCUSSION
Findings from the present study illuminate the dynamics of gender stereotypes and beliefs
among individuals with varying levels of education. The results regarding emotional
stereotypes about women underscore a complex interplay between education and gendered
perceptions for men. Specifically, male respondents with higher educational backgrounds
(bachelor's degrees) had higher ratings on emotional stereotypes about women compared to
female respondents with post-graduate degrees, who displayed the lowest ratings. The
propensity of men to endorse gender stereotypes and gender-based violence has been
previously highlighted (Fakunmoju & Bammeke, 2017; Olszewska et al., 2023). Interestingly,
education appears to have limited effects on men, as an increase in education did not seem to
eliminate their misconceptions and generalizations about women or diminish their
subscription to traditional perceptions about emotional dispositions of women.
Another key finding pertains to sexual stereotypes about men. Female respondents with
bachelor's degrees showed higher ratings in this category compared to the lowest ratings of
their counterparts with post-graduate degrees. Previous studies have emphasized the impact
of educational differences on attitudes toward and perceptions of partner violence (Simon et
al., 2001). In cultures where men are perceived to be superior to women, beliefs supportive of
violence against women are likely to persist (Kalra & Bhugra, 2013), as sexual stereotypes
about men are rooted in masculinity. Unlike sexual submissiveness of women, which is rooted
in the subjugation of women, sexual stereotypes of men are rooted in the sexual superiority of
men. Such stereotypes help justify the sexual indiscretion of men and often serve as a precursor
for sexual violence against women. Unlike the stereotypes about sexual submissiveness of
women, which highlights the sexual vulnerability and exploitation of women and is often used
as a tool to validate the sexual superiority and authority of men over women, sexual stereotypes
about men are often invoked to justify the sexual insatiability and indiscretions of men
(Fakunmoju et al., 2016).
The finding regarding sexual submissiveness of women reveals a considerable difference based
on educational background. Respondents with less than a bachelor's degree, specifically those
with a high school diploma, were more likely to endorse sexual submissiveness compared to
respondents with bachelor's or post-graduate degrees. This result parallels previous findings
regarding the impacts of education in lowering the endorsement of traditional gender norms
(Rivera-Garrido, 2022), suggesting that education has neutralizing effects on patriarchal values
of sexual violence against women. Thus, the finding suggests that individuals with higher
educational qualifications may be less prone to endorsing traditional and potentially harmful
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Abrefa-Gyan, T. & Fakunmoju, S. B. (2023). Educational Disparities in Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs: Examining Gender Interaction Among
Respondents in Ghana. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(11). 172-182.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.1011.15823
beliefs about the sexual submissiveness of women. While education appears to be a protective
factor for the endorsement of sexual submissiveness of women, gender appears to be a risk
factor for the endorsement: men were found to be more likely to endorse sexual submissiveness
of women compared to women. Unfortunately, this result highlights the power dynamics within
gender relationships, indicating that men, on average, may be more inclined to endorse
traditional and potentially restrictive views on sexual expectations of women to men in
intimate relationships.
Strengths and Limitations
The strength of the study lies in its focus on the emotional and sexual aspects of gender
stereotypes and beliefs in Ghana, enabling the determination of the impacts of varying levels of
gender and education on the identified stereotypes. This approach enhances the study's ability
to narrow its focus and target future interventions and measures in addressing gender
stereotypes in the region. Similarly, the study's use of the online method for data collection
allowed for anonymous responses and wider coverage, thereby enhancing the generalizability
of findings. However, while the online mode of data collection improved the anonymity of
responses and widened coverage, findings cannot be generalized to respondents without
internet access, particularly those residing in the rural areas of the country. The gender
stereotypes and beliefs of individuals without internet access may differ significantly from
those reported in the present study. This is a reasonable assumption, especially considering
that almost half of the respondents (47.9%) reported having a bachelor's degree or above in
education.
Implications
Results in the present study contribute to the broader discourse on gender equity and provide
a foundation for developing policies and strategies that promote more egalitarian attitudes and
behaviors in intimate relationships. Based on the identified patterns of associations, findings
highlight the importance of considering both gender and educational background when
examining gender stereotypes and beliefs, suggesting the need for targeted interventions in
educational settings to address the identified dynamics. A possible measure could be
integrating content that enhances critical thinking on traditional gender norms and roles in the
curricula of bachelor’s degree education. Additionally, advocacy and awareness-raising efforts
may focus on increasing positive perceptions about women and eradicating problematic gender
stereotypes.
CONCLUSION
The dynamics of gender stereotypes and beliefs among individuals with varying levels of
education underscore the role of education in shaping beliefs about gender norms and roles,
suggesting that different measures targeted at individuals with different levels of education are
needed to address problematic perceptions and the endorsement of emotional stereotypes
about women, sexual submissiveness of women, and sexual stereotypes about men. In societies
where men constitute the moral police of female sexuality and command ownership of female
sexuality, gender stereotypes about the sexual vulnerability of women and the sexual
supremacy of men will remain pervasive, continuing to wreak havoc on the psychosocial well- being of victims, particularly women. Interventions and policies focused on gender and
educational settings will go a long way in challenging and addressing oppressive, suppressive,
and offensive gender stereotypes and beliefs.
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