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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 10, No. 8
Publication Date: August 25, 2023
DOI:10.14738/assrj.108.15435.
Anucha, H. (2023). Education Leadership: Legal and Social Impacts of Public Schools Leadership and Management on the City of
Baltimore Maryland, United States of America. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(8). 377-395.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Education Leadership: Legal and Social Impacts of Public Schools
Leadership and Management on the City of Baltimore Maryland,
United States of America
Hyacinth Anucha
Department of Educational Leadership, Bowie State University
and Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
ABSTRACT
This study assessed the correlation between per student expenditure and academic
achievement, examining legal issues, poverty, and crime as chronic factors
impacting low academic performance as parents’ legal actions against the City
School Board of Commissioners question the effectiveness of public-school
spending. Ineffective leadership, mismanagement, poverty, and crime contribute to
subpar performance, necessitating new strategies for learning, teaching, and
meeting high academic standards. The Baltimore City public school system has
faced challenges in academic achievement, poverty, and crime over the past
decades. Maryland's Blueprint for the Future and meta research emphasize the
importance of effective leadership and quality education to enhance student
achievement, socioeconomic growth, and reduce crime. The present research
analyzed various factors influencing public school performance, including per
teacher and pupil expenditure, while correlating SAT and ACT scores with academic
improvement in Baltimore City, Maryland. Besides, it is declared that effective
educational leadership is imperative in a data driven culture whose challenges lie
not in advanced technology itself but rather in the transformation of repressive
cultures, teams, and practices.
Keywords: Educational Leadership, Baltimore City, Public School Performance,
Educational Legal Issues, and Social Economic Factors
ARGUMENTS ADVANCED AND CLAIMS OF SIGNIFICANCE
The critical role of education is to intentionally advance and enlighten society by employing
scientific methods to tackle human issues, while educational leadership must skillfully adjust
to the 21st century's technological, legal, and societal shifts. Moreover, by effectively
implementing systemic innovative strategies, educational institutions can enhance access to
quality education and achieve high academic standards, while also addressing and disrupting
the "school-to-prison pipeline" disproportionately affecting Black and Brown children, a
concept identified as a "symbiotic relationship" between schools and the court systems
(Marder, 2022, p.1).
INTRODUCTION
Educational Leadership has an inescapable responsibility to enable citizens and school systems
to be better than we are, always modifying capitalized form of life intelligence, and habits of
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discipline to recognize and communicate truth in any community. Citizens of Baltimore,
Maryland have been debating over the past few years whether there is significant relationship
between per pupil expenditure and the academic achievement in the public school’s system.
Parents, educational leaders, activists, local officials, psychologists have engaged in the on- going debate over education and its role in the face of Baltimore’s increasing crime rate and
fluctuating poverty. Currently, Baltimore ranks third in violent crimes in the nation. In spite of
huge expenditure per capita, a good number of students registering effective academic success
within the Baltimore public school’s system many have been largely left behind (Brookings.
2023). Additionally, several students often fall short of yearly advancement tests and
standardized tests such as the SAT. Educational leadership needs to ensure that each child is
provided the appropriate nurturing environment to thrive. Behind the façade of no child left
behind, is the reality of educational failure for the Black and Brown students in a school system
that ought to be productive with expected outcomes. Presently, there is a huge knowledge gap
between academic success and expected educational outcomes in the Baltimore City Public
Schools System. Now the question is, is there any significant association between
socioeconomic factors and the public school’s academic performance in Baltimore city?
Fundamentally, it is believed that that truly liberal education has a vital and ever renewing role
to play in modern societies, even in the face of continuing critical and legal glances some of the
school districts and institutions are experiencing. Parents and community members however
are presenting conflicting truths as expenditures are increasing while teaching and learning are
decreasing, bemoaning the misfortune, parents in Baltimore Maryland feel that degradation has
overtaken the minds of the children in the city that reads (Alvarez, 2016). Though it is assumed
that some giant abstractions cause the particular evils and power politics of the district school
board, and pernicious counter culture of crime impacting the economic and intellectual culture
and values espoused by the youthful citizens that are achieving lower scores on the SAT and
ACT examinations, a badge of dishonor compared to the gigantic amounts of per pupil
expenditure in the Baltimore School System. This study manages to give the designations the
truth regarding the heart of the matter in high per pupil expenditure and degrading academic
achievement and elevated crime rate.
Current gauges of college and career readiness tend to focus on academic preparation and
achievement, but evidence shows that success in school and the workplace is dependent on
multiple aspects in addition to academic ability. Using ACT research, the ACT Holistic
Framework provides four domains (core academic skills, cross cutting capabilities, behavioral
skills, and education and career navigation) that most effectively predict and prepare
someone's college and career readiness (ACT, 2020, p. i). Students and employees can use this
framework as a map to track themselves along their journey to becoming college and career
ready. Teachers and employers can use this framework to identify times of intervention or
manage additional support for their students or employees. The city that was given exceptional
prominence in pioneering first class education partly because we have in the school districts
educational paradigm that operates its complex administration, constructively impacts the
economy, and satisfies most of its cultural needs without the claim of typically inadequacies
and derogatory performance is now been questioned about effective performance, with
increased crime rate bounded by poverty, and in need of improved academic standards. This
study reviews new approaches to educational administration, and the twine needs of
maintaining structure, theoretical perspectives, impacting the socioeconomic, and the ability of
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Anucha, H. (2023). Education Leadership: Legal and Social Impacts of Public Schools Leadership and Management on the City of Baltimore Maryland,
United States of America. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(8). 377-395.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.108.15435
educational leadership to meaningfully understand their hegemonic roles in invaluable human
affairs in favour of the development of culturally relevant approaches that build on mutually
evolving irreducible features of human life, culture, and participatory democratic principles
free of radical politics (Uwakonye et al., 2020; Foster, 1986).
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The current state of public-school education is characterized by poor student performance and
the school-to-prison pipeline, raising doubts about the effectiveness and worth of the
educational system. Despite increasing expenditure, student performance and academic
achievement are declining. The system's credibility and values are under intense scrutiny, as
reliance solely on the legal system for determining these values becomes impractical due to
rising costs. The Baltimore city public school’s system aims to provide high-quality education
for all students, but there is a concerning decline in the number of teachers completing
preparation programs, especially in areas affected by poverty, socioeconomic factors, crime,
and low academic achievement (Maryland State Board of Education [MSBE], 2022).
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The aim of this research was to investigate the relationship between per-student expenditure
and academic achievement in the Baltimore city public school’s system, while taking into
account the impact of persistent socioeconomic factors, such as poverty and crime, which are
known to significantly affect low academic performance. Furthermore, the study aimed to
assess educational outcomes and evaluate the efficiency of public-school spending.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Baltimore city has maintained a distinctive and diverse culture that has attracted people from
various parts of the world over the years. Despite its influence, this city has faced challenges
in achieving satisfactory academic outcomes for its inner-city students, primarily due to high
poverty and crime rates, as well as rising per-student expenditure. Bowie (2021, p.1) declared
that about 65% of secondary students and 50% of elementary students in the system are
failing at least one class, according to the school system. Besides, to hold pupils back would
go against current education research that indicates students have better enduring academic
success when they are given effective support.
Subsequent, Chen (2022, p.1), declared that while there are no immediate obvious solutions
for students who are struggling academically, meta research seems to point to a whole new
approach to keeping these students from falling through the academic cracks in our public
education system. Following the pandemic, Baltimore school leaders did not hold back tens
of thousands of students failing classes the 2020-2021 school year rather provided academic
support and additional time while customizing instruction plans to make up gaps in their
learning (Bowie, 2021, p.1). Students were tested in the subsequent fall term to determine
what skills they have missed and the schools created a plan for individual student designed
to close the learning gasp where they existed, and subsequently, adjusted their grades.
Consequently, more than 12,500 grades were changed from failing to passing at the high
schools (Marder, 2022. p.1). It appears clear and the time has come for transformational
leadership, innovation, and creativity to be integrated to improve learning and achieve high
academic standards.
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Moreover, Maryland is facing a severe teacher shortage, particularly in special education, as
the demand for special education services has increased while the supply of professionals has
not kept pace (MD State Department of Education (MSDE), 2021; Ford, 2023). The state's
student population with disabilities has grown, reaching 109,443 in 2021, leading to critical
shortages of special education teachers (MSDE, 2021, p.9). Additionally, there has been a
significant decline in teacher preparation program enrollments, contributing to the problem.
Baltimore County Public Schools experienced such critical shortages that they sought to
recruit retirees to fill vacant positions. The need for education leaders who can drive
curriculum change and provide support for students with disabilities, including trauma- informed and mental health services, is evident.
In line with national trends, the Maryland State Department of Education (Ford, 2023; MSDE,
2021) has reported a “critical shortage” of teachers, with recent estimates of nearly 2,000
vacancies, many of which were Special education shortages. The escalating teacher shortage
across districts nationwide, projected to extend into the fall, is accompanied by statistics from
a Frontline Education survey. The survey reveals that 60 percent of suburban schools, 65
percent of rural areas, and 75 percent of cities are grappling with shortages, attributing some
of the responsibility to the pandemic's pressures (CBS Baltimore, 2021, p.1). Besides, over
the past 10 years, less than 30% of Maryland teachers were teachers of color (MSDE, 2022).
In 2021, Baltimore County Public Schools (BCPS), Maryland's third largest school district had
shortages so critical they were looking for retirees to fill vacant positions (MSDE, 2021).
In 2022 Baltimore (2,027 number of incidents per 100,000 people) ranks number 3 in violent
crime with only St. Louis, MO (2,082) and Detroit, MI (2,057) ranking numbers 1 and 2
respectively (World Population Review, 2022, p.1). It follows that the districts with the
highest crime rates also have very poor housing conditions, meager incomes, and damaging
health conditions, with formation of gangs, and more problems for the police and security
personnel.
Furthermore, Ortiz (2022) highlighted that the changing landscape of education and the
workplace requires a new perspective on college and career readiness in the US. To support
students from kindergarten to career, ACT has created The ACT Holistic Framework, which
emphasizes understanding education and work readiness, navigating life's transitions, and
achieving success. The integration of actual test scores like ACT and SAT, instead of Leap Test
scores, would have allowed for easier correlation with academic improvement. The
framework has proven beneficial in empowering Career & College Clubs to provide more
effective support to students, bridging the gap between academic readiness and future
success. Additionally, the study acknowledges the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on the
decline of the Baltimore city public school system and its students, and also notes the
challenges posed by living in a more violent crime-ridden culture.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK - CORRESPONDENCE THEORY AND IDEOLOGICAL
HEGEMONY
Correspondence Theory
Foster's review of Bowles and Gintis (1976) proposes a theory that views schools as structured
to serve the needs of the economic order, mirroring workplace hierarchies and instilling norms
and values required for efficient productivity in a capitalist society. While Cohen and Rosenberg
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Anucha, H. (2023). Education Leadership: Legal and Social Impacts of Public Schools Leadership and Management on the City of Baltimore Maryland,
United States of America. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(8). 377-395.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.108.15435
(1977) argue that schools do play a role in perpetuating inequalities, they caution against
oversimplifying this function. Giroux (1981) adds that Bowles and Gintis overlook the influence
of consciousness, ideology, and how knowledge is conveyed and interpreted in the classroom.
Thompson (2017) introduces the correspondence theory, which suggests that the norms and
values learned in school align with what capitalist employers will exploit in the future
workforce. Additionally, Thompson argues that public school systems, bound by state and
federal constraints, may be less responsive to student and parental needs, and the fragmented
nature of knowledge in schools corresponds to the division of labor in the workforce.
Ideological Hegemony
The Theory of ideological hegemony asserts that a population willingly reinforces power
structures and societal ideas, even when they only marginally benefit those lacking meaningful
access to power, leading to the acceptance of dominant relations of domination and exploitation
by the oppressed (Foster, 1986; Stoddart, 2007). Hence, individuals within a society actively
support and uphold power structures and societal norms, even when such arrangements only
offer extremely limited advantages to those without significant influence. According to this
theory, dominant ideas and beliefs in society are carefully woven into the minds of the populace,
resulting in the acceptance and consent of the oppressed toward their subjugation and
exploitation (Pearce and Tombs, 1990).
In education, however, ideological hegemony suggests that the ruling class employs various
means, such as media, education, and cultural institutions, to disseminate and perpetuate their
ideologies, thereby maintaining their control over the subordinate classes (Davis, 1987). No
wonder, the oppressed are in voluntary compliance with oppressive systems, as they
unknowingly participate in their own subordination by internalizing the prevailing beliefs and
values of the ruling class. Hence, it is imperative that educational leadership needs to gain
insights into the mechanisms through which dominant groups maintain their power and
control, shedding light on the complexities of social stratification and the role of ideology in
shaping societal structures.
According to these theories, schools replicate workplace hierarchies, serving the needs of the
economic system and perpetuating economic inequality in voluntary compliance. Hence, inner- city public-school systems predominantly focus on instilling values and norms for economic
productivity. Despite this perspective, inner-city students often struggle academically in
standardized tests like SAT and ACT. The present research examined factors impacting
performance in the Baltimore City School system, including poverty, socioeconomic factors, and
crime
The Legal Issue-The Heart of the Matter
In 2022, a lawsuit was filed by concerned citizens to disrupt the "school-to-prison pipeline" for
Black and Brown children, highlighting the interdependence between the school and court
systems (Marder, 2022, p.1). The current educational leadership is accused of neglecting
individual values, focusing on an objective versus subjective divide, which disproportionately
affects Black and Brown children with higher representation in the criminal justice system
(Marder, 2022).
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In May 2022, Whitney Davis filed a complaint with the Maryland State Department of Education
regarding her son's education at the city school (Frost, 2022). The state mandated corrective
action for Darian's education and the development of a plan to assist him. Additionally,
measures were required to ensure proper education for all students with disabilities at Pimlico
Elementary, subject to monitoring reports and potential fund withholding for non-compliance
(Frost, 2022). The legal challenge addressed the school system's inadequacies from taxpayers'
perspectives, focusing on low reading proficiency scores, social promotion, and grade-changing
issues at high schools. This case is considered a litmus test for similar legal actions against
school districts across the country, all with the central goal of providing quality education for
all students (Marder, 2022).
DATA ANALYSIS
Baltimore Poverty by Race
Baltimore is situated in central Maryland, along the Patapsco River, and is commonly referred
to as Baltimore City. The population of the city has seen a slight but encouraging increase,
reaching an estimated 622,000 residents. (US Census, 2019). This is a notable development for
Baltimore, considering its significant population decline of over one-third in the past six
decades. In Baltimore, the average household income is $74,246, and the poverty rate stands
at 20.03%, while male poverty rate stands at 18.79%, female poverty rate is 21.12% (US Census
2019 ACS 5-Year Survey (Table1). The median rental cost per month is $1,094, while the
median house value is $167,300. The city has a median age of 35.4 years, with males averaging
34.1 years and females 36.6 years (US Census, 2019).
Table 1: Baltimore Poverty by Race
Baltimore Poverty by Race
Name Total In Poverty Poverty Rate
Islander 141 59 41.84%
Native 1,787 551 30.83%
Black 362,937 88,067 24.27%
Hispanic 31,339 5,893 18.80%
Asian 13,679 2,444 17.87%
White 157,964 17,747 11.23%
Other 2,102 NaN%
Multiple 18,145 2,505 13.81%
Sources: United States Census Bureau - (Table S1701). (2020). Baltimore Poverty by Race
Per Student Expenditure
Baltimore City Schools will spend approximately $21,000 per student this year due to a
significant increase in education funding (Project Baltimore (PB), 2022, p.1). Project Baltimore
declared that the Kirwan bill, passed by Maryland lawmakers two years ago, has now come into
effect, resulting in a budget of $1,620,788,542 for the upcoming school year. This marks a
substantial 16 percent increase, with nearly $230 million more compared to the previous year's
budget of $1,393,777,695 (PB, 2022, p1). However, despite the boost in funding, the school
district has been experiencing a decline in enrollment over the years, leading to concerns about
whether the additional taxpayer money will lead to improved student outcomes (Project
Baltimore, 2022). Maryland spends nearly $9 billion or approximately 18% of the state’s total
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Anucha, H. (2023). Education Leadership: Legal and Social Impacts of Public Schools Leadership and Management on the City of Baltimore Maryland,
United States of America. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(8). 377-395.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.108.15435
budget on education, as some law-makers debate on whether the Kirwan education plan will
help Baltimore City Public Schools (Frost, 2021, p.1).
Baltimore City Schools' budget of $1.6 billion translates to $21,606 per student, making it the
fourth most-funded large school system in the United States, according to the latest U.S. Census
report. The three districts that spend more are New York City, Boston, and Washington DC, all
of which achieve significantly higher national test scores. Comparatively, these three districts
have nearly double the number of students proficient in reading compared to Baltimore. Project
Baltimore spoke with Jennifer Butler from the Maryland Public Policy Institute in November
2019; Butler expressed that Baltimore City has witnessed a series of scandals, and he questions
whether the current funds are being utilized effectively and efficiently (Project Baltimore, 2022,
p.2).
The significant increase in funding for Baltimore City Schools is a result of the Kirwan
Commission and the Blueprint for Maryland's Future, which was passed in 2021 despite
Governor Larry Hogan's veto (Project Baltimore, 2022, p.2). Taxpayers were assured that this
additional funding would lead to improved student outcomes in the struggling school system.
However, when comparing Baltimore to the three districts with higher spending (New York
City, Boston, and Washington DC), these districts have much better national test scores and
nearly twice as many students proficient in reading (Table 2). The 16% increase in this year's
budget will mainly be allocated to Mid-Level Administration and Instruction, covering teacher
salaries and classroom materials (Project Baltimore, 2022, p.2). The question remains whether
this extra money will indeed lead to better student outcomes as promised to the taxpayers. All
the same, Project Baltimore will be closely monitoring the situation.
Table 2: Per Pupil Spending and NAEP Reading
City Per Pupil Spending NAEP Reading
New York $28,828 27
Boston $27,793 29
Washington, D.C. $22,856 29
Baltimore $21,606 14
Source: Project Baltimore. (August 15th 2022). Baltimore City School budget balloons to $21,000 per student this
year. https://foxbaltimore.com/
The NAEP reading assessment (Table 2) evaluates the reading and comprehension abilities of
students in grades 4, 8, and 12. Students are required to read grade-appropriate passages and
answer questions based on their understanding of the material. The assessment is designed to
align with cognitive targets (locate and recall, integrate and interpret, and critique and
evaluate), which represent the mental processes underlying reading comprehension (NCES,
2022).
Academics at Baltimore City Public Schools
Following NICHE data (2023, p.1), Baltimore city public schools currently maintains a score
grade of C-minus in academics, with an average graduation rate of 70%, and the percentage of
students that scored at or above the proficient levels on the reading/language arts and
Mathematics assessment test stand at 16% and 7% respectively. Besides, NICHIE reported an
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Average SAT of 1030 out of 1600 composite score,(Math and Verbal, 510 and 520 respectively),
and an average ACT score of 23 out of 36 composite score (NICHE, 2023, p.1),
Most Violent Cities in America 2022
Violent crime involves the use or threat of force against a victim, encompassing offenses like
homicide, assault, rape, robbery, and more. According to the FBI's 2018 Crime in the United
States Report, the country experienced a 3.9% decrease in the violent crime rate, with
approximately 368.9 offenses per 100,000 inhabitants (FBI, 2022). This reduction is attributed
to the re-launch of the Project Safe Neighborhoods program, which promotes collaboration
between law enforcement, prosecutors, and community leaders to address crime effectively.
However, violent crime rates vary significantly across regions, and certain cities, including St.
Louis, MO (2,082), Detroit, MI (2,057), and Baltimore, MD (2,027), rank highest in violent crime
incidents per 100,000 people (FBI, 2022).
Teachers’ Salary and Shortages
Teacher shortages in the United States are primarily driven by multiple challenges, including
the COVID-19 pandemic, but the most significant factor is low teacher salaries, causing fewer
people to enter and more to leave the teaching profession (NEA Collective Bargaining and
Member Advocacy Department (NEACBMAD), 2022). According to the National Education
Association (NEA) analysis, the national average beginning salary for a teacher with a Master's
degree in the 2021-2022 school year is $45,391, which is 8.7 percent higher than a teacher with
a Bachelor's degree (NEACBMAD, 2022, p.2).Across more than twenty-five states, teachers face
weekly wage penalties ranging from 3.4% to 35.9%, resulting in over half of the states
compensating teachers at less than 80 cents for every dollar earned by professionals in similar
education-related fields (Allegretto, 2022, p.1). In many states, teacher salaries have remained
stagnant, adjusted for inflation, for nearly a generation, leading to a decrease in the number of
educators choosing to stay in the profession (Allegretto, 2022, p.1; NEA, 2022, p.2).
During the 2021-2022 school year, the national average teacher salary stands at $66,397, with
only a slight 1.7 percent increase from the previous year and a significant 3.9 percent decrease
over the past decade when adjusted for inflation (Will, 2022, p.1). There is considerable
disparity between states, with New York offering the highest average salary at $90,222 for the
same period, while Mississippi offers the lowest at $46,862 (Will, 2022, p.1). Maryland ranks
9th among the 50 states, with an average teacher salary of $74,006 for the 2020-2021 school
year, showing a meager 0.77% increase from the previous year (Mills, 2022, p.3).
Despite substantial budgets allocated to education, such as the $1.4 billion budget for 78,000
students in Maryland's district, the school system still grapples with teacher shortages and
student underperformance (Andrzejewski, May, 2021, p.1; Conklin, 2021, p.1). Maryland
lawmakers have planned a 10-year education development plan costing over $30 billion, yet
problems persist (Frost, February 2021, p.1). Despite the significant efforts teachers put into
their work, they remain underpaid compared to other professions, which further exacerbates
the challenges faced by the education system.
Under Performing Schools
In almost all indicators, the Baltimore Public Schools System, from elementary through middles
schools, and high school is earning low points, and generally the performance indicators show
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Anucha, H. (2023). Education Leadership: Legal and Social Impacts of Public Schools Leadership and Management on the City of Baltimore Maryland,
United States of America. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(8). 377-395.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.108.15435
a school system in dire need of realistic improvement. The data provided below indicate that
all levels of the public school’s system in Baltimore City are performing below average,
considering the earned points and the possible points, even when the annual targeted
performance is below 100%.
Table 3: School level Performance
INDICATOR POSSIBLE
POINTS
EARNED POINTS* AND
PERCENTAGE EARNED BY SCHOOL LEVELS
ELEMENTARY
SCHOOLS
MIDDLE SCHOOLS HIGH SCHOOLS
Academic Achievement 20.0 6.3 (31.5%) 6.3 (31.5%) 11.7 (58.5%)
Academic Progress 31.5 15.2 (48.3%) 15.2 (48.3%) 11.0 (34.9%)
Progress in Achieving English
Language Proficiency
10.0 2.8 (28%) 2.8 (28.0%) 3.6 (36.0%)
School Quality and Student
Success
35.0 16.0 (45.7%) 16.0 (45.7%)
12.5 (35.7%)
Graduation Rate 15.0 n/a n/a 11.0 (73.3%)
Readiness for Post- Secondary Success 10.0 n/a n/a 7.9 (79.0%)
Table 3: Baltimore City 2018 - 2019 School Report Card with Performance Indicators
SOURCE: Maryland State Department of Education (MSDE) (2022b, pp.10-11): Baltimore City 2018 - 2019 School
Report Card (Baltimore City (30) (modified with percentages), Grade Levels: Elementary/Middle/High. It must be
observed that the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic prevented the publication of the Report Card results for the
2019-2020 and 2020-2021 school years.
The Baltimore Public Schools System is experiencing low performance across all grade levels,
indicating a pressing need for significant improvement. The data presented below illustrates
that students in the urban school district are consistently underperforming, with all
performance indicators falling below average and the annual targeted performance not
reaching 100% proficiency. Besides, the Baltimore City 2018 - 2019 School Report Card with
Performance Indicators in Table 3 above shows that students are scoring well below their
potential points in all areas of the public school system. Regarding Academic Achievement,
both elementary and middle school students scored 31.5%, while high school students scored
58.5% (MSDE, 2022b, pp.10-11). Academic Progress scores indicated by the MSDE report card
(2022b, pp.10-11) were even lower, with elementary and middle schools at 48.3% each and
high schools at 34.9%. The indicator "Progress in Achieving English Language Proficiency"
yielded the lowest scores, with elementary and middle schools earning 28% each, and high
schools scoring 36%. School Quality and Student Success scores were also notably below
expectations, with elementary, middle, and high schools frozen at 45.7%, 45.7%, and 35.7%,
respectively (MSDE, 2022b, pp.10-11).
The high school graduation rate was 73.3%, while the "Readiness for Post-Secondary Success"
score stood at 79% (MSDE, 2022b, pp.10-11). The overall report card for the Baltimore city
public school’s system for the 2018-2019 school year revealed dismal performance, calling for
urgent attention to improve outcomes. Despite the concerning situation, students are being
socially promoted to higher levels without meeting standards, leading to challenges in a toxic
and turbulent environment. The current approach, based on the "no child left behind"
perspective, appears to be intellectually unsatisfactory and demands significant intervention.
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Race Gaps in SAT Scores Highlight Inequality and Hinder Upward Mobility.
Moreover, data on race gaps in SAT scores highlight inequality and hinder upward mobility
with remarkable profundity, providing a measure of academic inequality at the end of
secondary schooling (Brookings, February 1, 2017, p.1). In the year 2017, the mathematics
section of the SAT for all tests-takers indicates a mean score of 511 out of 800, the average
scores for blacks (428) and Brown (Latinos) (457) are significantly below those of whites (534)
and Asians (598), (Reeves and Halikias, 2017, p.3). In the year 2022, the average SAT scores of
Maryland colleges is 1,165 and the average ACT score (composite score) is 25 for academic year
2021-2022 (CollegeEvaluator, 2022, p.1). The SAT and ACT statistics is based on IPEDS
admission data and the data is mostly focused on the 4 years colleges.
Reeves and Halikias (2017) declared that the scores of black and brown students are clustered
towards the bottom of the distribution, while white scores are relatively normally distributed,
and Asians are clustered at the top. Obviously, the academic achievement gap across the race
groups would become more pronounced if the test was designed to increase score variance, by
adding more difficult and simpler questions while removing score ceiling. However, this data is
limited in that it doesn’t allow us to disentangle race and class remains the drivers of the
academic achievement gaps, and in as much as the data does not allow for disentanglement of
race and class, the data remains significantly limited. Besides, given the significant reliance of
colleges on test scores for admissions, the gaps in SAT math performance are likely to continue
to reproduce patterns of inequality in American society (Reeves and Halikias, 2017, p.1). The
declining student test scores in Maryland should serve as wakeup call for all educational
leaders, teachers, parents, students and legislators to summon courage and double efforts and
improve teaching, leaning, and education, most especially for the Black and Brown students at
all levels of our institutions. Generally, the impact of low performance is also felt on the
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT).
Trends in Violent Crimes
The land of the free and the home of the brave has witnessed significant rise in crime in the first
two month of the year 2023. We have witnessed more than 90 violent shootings across the
nation in less than 60 days in the New Year. World Population Review (WPR) (2023, p.1)
observed that “Violent crime suggests that a person or persons behave in a manner that
threatens, attempts, or actually inflicts physical harm on another person or property”. It has
been observed that in 2017, Baltimore, with 2,027 incidents of violent crimes per 100,000
residents, ranks third with St. Louis, MO (2,082), and Detroit, MI (2,057) taken the unenviable
first and second positions in the nation in the year 2022, while Memphis, Tennessee (2,003)
and Little Rock Arkansas (1,634) closed the first five most dangerous cities for the year 2022
(WPR, 2022, p.1).
Data Analysis and Interpretations of Evidences
This study sheds light on key issues like high per pupil expenditure, declining academic
achievement, and elevated crime rates, all within a backdrop of a more crime-ridden culture.
Over recent years, Baltimore city has experienced fluctuations in crime and poverty levels,
sparking debates among educational leaders and parents about education's role in these
changes (Reeves and Halikias,2017; MSDE, 2022a). Emerging issues have significantly
impacted stakeholders' perceptions, with some students progressing successfully while others
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URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.108.15435
lag behind. While well-defined policies are essential, their practical implementation is equally
crucial for academic success.
Test score data reveals that the academic performance of minority pupils may be affected by
implicit racial biases held by educational leaders and teachers (Dhaliwa et al., 2020). The Table
4 below and FBI’s Crime Data indicate that violent crime is constantly experienced by people in
the influential city of Baltimore. Statistical analysis indicates a strong correlation between low
education, high poverty, and high crime rates, suggesting that poverty-limited students may
seek liberation through any means necessary (Reeves and Halikias, 2017). Improving education
productivity can offer students options away from criminal behavior and poverty. To enhance
the study's relevance and validity, data from comparable inner cities over a certain period,
including per capita measurements, should be included. Furthermore, the percentage of
persons below poverty level by State (2015-2021) and its stratification with supplemental
poverty measures could provide more meaningful insights into improving academic standards
in comparable cities and states, particularly for Black and Brown students. Taking a broader
perspective, comprehensive and effective solutions should be developed to improve teaching,
learning, and academic standards. Imperfect results call for incentives and robust leadership
policies to enhance performance, productivity, and outcomes for both students and teachers.
Table 4: Maryland State Offenses Known to Law Enforcement by City, 2017
Maryland State
Offenses Known to Law Enforcement by City, 2017
City Population Violent Crime
Murder and
Non-Negligent
Manslaughter Rape Robbery
Aberdeen 15,720 74 0 5 25
Annapolis 39,596 221 7 15 63
Baltimore 613,217 12,430 342 382 5,827
Bowie 58,891 81 4 3 35
Cambridge 12,471 162 0 4 27
Cumberland 19,842 150 1 7 41
Elkton 15,794 184 1 7 46
Frederick 70,860 468 1 28 87
Greenbelt 24,099 144 4 9 79
Hagerstown 40,568 249 8 18 119
Laurel 25,997 159 1 9 55
Salisbury 33,558 326 7 21 94
Westminster 18,682 121 0 0 9
Source: The FBI’s Crime Data Explorer – Offenses Known to Law Enforcement (modified FBI Table 8).
Data Analysis and Interpretations of Evidences
The current research seeks to examine and evaluate various factors contributing to the
performance of pupils in the Baltimore City School system. This study manages to give the
designations the truth regarding the heart of the matter in high per pupil expenditure,
degrading academic achievement, and elevated crime rate. We live and operate in a more
violent crime ridden culture. Over the past few years, the crime and poverty levels of Maryland
have fluctuated immensely, and educational leaders and parents have debated over education
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URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.108.15435
was highly inconsistent, making it challenging to effectively compare and correlate the findings,
and the lack of simultaneous data collection hinders the ability to draw meaningful conclusions
and innovative solutions (Brown et. al., 2017).
Chronic socio-economic factors, such as poverty and crime, significantly impact low academic
achievement in schools, as stakeholders have criticized the education system for failing
students for many years, despite the substantial per-student expenditure on public education
(Uwakonye et. al., 2020). While efforts for socioeconomic improvement are apparent, the
reality of effective students' academic achievement calls for more effective and lasting
solutions. In 2021, Black and Hispanic populations were disproportionately affected, with the
highest poverty rates at 19.5% and 17.0% respectively (Wilson and Maye, 2022, p.5). A strong
correlation between poverty and academic achievement was found, with students in poverty
experiencing lower test scores, highlighting the need to address educational inequalities
(Filenius, 2019).
While test score data findings predicted diminished academic performance of minority pupils,
it could be equally and logically declared that “underperformance by minorities in academic
domains may be driven by the implicit racial biases the educational leaders and teachers have
on students’ and pedagogical effectiveness” (Jacoby-Senghor, Sinclair, and Shelton 2016, p.50).
Moreover, educational leaders, management, teachers, students, parents and politician, and all
stake holders must work together to contribute effective action to improve teaching, learning,
and meet high academic standards.
POLICY CONSIDERATIONS
Policy statements should prioritize enhancing student outcomes in American urban school
districts and addressing the generational impact of poverty. Policymakers must critically
reevaluate resource allocation, considering the compounding effects of concentrated poverty
on students' opportunities and results. While funding alone is insufficient, directing additional
funds towards evidence-based strategies like teacher salaries and classroom support can
improve outcomes for minority and disadvantaged students. In effect, policies should aim to
attract, retain, and reward impactful teachers in high-needs schools, particularly in
overcrowded urban classrooms. Additionally, policymakers must recognize and address the
limited access to policy and power that Black and Brown students and their parents endure,
adopting a visionary and reimagined approaches to achieve true improvement and
breakthroughs for a brighter future for all stakeholders. The Blueprint for Maryland's Future is
a beneficial investment in schools that ensures access to educational programs, funds statewide
special education improvements, prioritizes teacher training for a brighter future, and
emphasizes career and technical education for academic and professional success (MSDE,
2022a).
RECOMMENDATIONS
Creating a visionary future beyond the current predictions is achievable, and it requires
solutions to breakdowns in teaching, learning, and academic achievement. Implementing a
policy that incorporates neighborhood poverty indicators for grant eligibility can improve
educational outcomes in the Baltimore region. Future research should investigate the
connections between school-level SES tiers, outcomes, and resources, as well as the correlation
between SES tiers and student achievement and improvement.
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Meta-research studies have indicated that effective leadership and innovative strategies must
be employed to improve student achievement, socioeconomic growth, and meaningfully reduce
the surging crime rate in urban cities (Rivera, 2023; CBS Baltimore (WJZ), 2019). Educational
leadership has an inescapable responsibility to enable citizens and school systems to be better
than we are, always modifying capitalized forms of life intelligence, and habits of discipline to
recognize and communicate truth in any community.
While test score data findings predict diminished academic performance of minority pupils, it
could be equally and logically asserted that underperformance by minorities in academic
domains may be driven by the implicit cultural biases that educational leaders and teachers
have regarding students' pedagogical efficacy. Further investigation into the role of intact
families and the consequences of community violence on academic achievement would be
recommended. Additionally, addressing cultural biases among leaders and teachers can
improve minority students' performance. Furthermore, it is recommended that further study
should examine the role of educational leadership in strengthening academic achievement at
the intersections of families, race, and socioeconomic status.
CONCLUSION
Educational leadership must look beyond current policies and meaningfully unite all
stakeholders to disrupt the school-to-prison pipeline for Black and Brown children. As policy
makers prioritize effective sustainability performance measurement to ensure excellent
outcomes for Black and Brown students, critical innovative strategies for equal access to quality
education and meeting high academic standards must be developed. Moreover, addressing
historical discriminations requires truth and justice, and educational leadership should tackle
systemic racism and fractured race-relationships through meaningful changes. Besides,
prominent legal actions and low academic performance call for broader and legally defensible
systemic academic improvement options that must be championed by effective educational
leadership and management to improve teaching, learning, and meet high academic standards.
Currently, the Blueprint for Maryland prioritizes students' development and creates a brighter
future in an effort to eliminate the school-to-prison cycle for Black and Brown students, as true
educational leadership ensures success for all students and reevaluates schools' role in society
and their impact on the socioeconomic order. Moreover, a crucial factor in enhancing student
achievement, addressing socioeconomic challenges, promoting truth-seeking, and fostering
open communication within educational communities is effective leadership backed by
effective meta-research with proven outcomes.
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