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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 10, No. 6
Publication Date: June 25, 2023
DOI:10.14738/assrj.106.14984.
Arıkan, S., Dochy, F., & Segers, M. (2023). Effects of High-Impact Learning Practices: A Review. Advances in Social Sciences Research
Journal, 10(6). 507-536.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Effects of High-Impact Learning Practices: A Review
Simla Arikan
HILL Academy, Sint-Reneldislaan 9, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
Filip Dochy
Academia Europaea, Malet Street London, wC1E7HU, UK
Mien Segers
School of Business and Economics, Maastricht University,
P.O. Box 616, 6200MD Maastricht, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
One of the biggest concerns that has come to the fore in the field of education
recently is whether colleges and higher education institutions offer educational
programs providing their students with the basic skills and competences necessary
to meet the requirements of the globalising and rapidly changing world and the
accordingly changing labour market. To answer this question, this review
investigated the effects of 11 high impact practices (HIPs) based on single HIPs
(RQ1), limited combinations (LC) of HIPs (RQ2), and extended combinations (EC) of
HIPs (RQ3). For this study, selected 56 studies were analysed by narrative analysis.
As a result, 18 different positive effects were determined on which single HIPs
enhanced. Among these effects critical thinking, communication and collaboration
were the most promoted ones. In addition, fourteen LC of HIPs with 17 different
positive effects were detected. Communication, collaboration and career related
opportunities were the most common effects of LC of HIPs. Furthermore, 16
different positive effects of EC of HIPs can be grouped under five main headings as
achievement-focused effects, motivation-focused effects, competence
development-focused effects, personal development-focused effects and learning
process-focused effects. EC of HIPs have the most competence/skills development- focused effects with their features of developing transformative learning,
leadership skills, student and faculty/peer/community interaction, critical
thinking, time management and job-readiness skills. Also, the most common effects
of EC of HIPs were increased student engagement and motivation, increased critical
thinking, higher academic achievements, higher graduation rates and retention.
Keywords: High impact learning, High impact learning practices, HIPs, High impact
practices, Higher education.
INTRODUCTION
Colleges and higher education institutions have double mission. One is to help students take an
active role in the key positions of the society and the other one is to equip them with domain
specific competences that enable them to solve complex problems. However, one of the biggest
concerns in the field of education that has been on the agenda lately is whether colleges and
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higher education institutions offer training programmes providing their students the
foundational skills and competences which are essential in a globalised world for supporting a
life full of challenges and that meet the requirements of the labour market.
According to Tynjälä, Slotte, Nieminen, Lonka, & Olkinuora [2006], although professionals
seemed very satisfied with the general mastery of knowledge the university equipped them
with, they report that they only learned the most important skills they need on the job. Also,
most of the graduates think that they haven’t got enough practice in social skills and in
interaction with clients in their university life. In addition, after the analysis of more than 2,300
undergraduate students, Arum & Roksa [2011] remarked that more than a third of the students
did not show a significant improvement in a variety of skills, including critical thinking, complex
reasoning, and writing, after four years at university. They also included the words of Derek
Bok, the former president of Harvard University, in their study as follows:
Colleges and universities, for all the benefits they bring, accomplish far less for their students
than they should. Many students graduate college today without being able to write well
enough to satisfy their employers...reason clearly or perform competently in analysing
complex, non-technical problems. [p. 1]
It can be indicated that many universities, colleges, and training centers teach their students
certain knowledge and test their mastery of this knowledge without ensuring that they can
apply it in the real world. However, graduates should not only be tested based on their
knowledge, but also be able to perform according to both the expectations of the society and
the labour market. Otherwise, as Mulder [2012] stated, the structural disconnection between
the world of education and training and the world of business and society will increase. In order
to promote and prepare students for global competitiveness, more emphasis should be placed
in educational programs on the ability to develop competences that are necessary in the future
dynamic society. The need for this change and renewal in the education system has brought up
a vital question: “What can colleges and universities do to promote high-impact learning?”
In the constantly changing world, while the needs of the labour market, the expectations of the
society, and the goals of people are changing rapidly, teaching processes cannot be stuck in
traditional methods that can only be carried out within class time and classroom walls where a
teacher transfers knowledge to the passive learners. By expressing their knowledge and
opinions, many experts have recently tried to shape the educational world to ensure high- impact learning. To illustrate, Dochy & Segers [2018] opined that the essence of training
programs that create impact on learners and their learning should include working and
learning in teams, trust in partners, workplace learning, problem-solving, flexibility, openness,
searching for information, selecting accurate and reliable information, being critical, creating
engagement, entrepreneurship, and so on. Recently, Dochy & Segers developed this into a High
Impact Learning that Lasts model combining this knowhow with the research results of the last
25 years. Miller, Rycek & Fritson [2011] observed that academic effort, active participation,
collaborative learning, relevance, student-faculty interactions and intrinsic interest are
engaging factors for students.
Moreover, various studies have been conducted to determine the validity of good practices in
undergraduate education and their positive outcomes for students. For instance, Pascarella,
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Arıkan, S., Dochy, F., & Segers, M. (2023). Effects of High-Impact Learning Practices: A Review. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(6).
507-536.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.106.14984
Palmer, Moye & Pierson’s [2001] study showed that involvement in diversity experiences
during college years has statistically significant positive effects on students’ critical thinking
skills. Also, according to Astin [1999], the greater the student’s participation in the university,
the greater the student’s learning and personal growth will be.
In recent years, a perspective called "hybrid expansivism” has emerged, with the influences of
new perspectives and several innovations in practice such as, Engeström's theory of expansive
learning [Engeström & Sannino, 2010; Dochy, Engeström, Sannino, & Meeuwen, 2021],
Siemen’s theory of connectivism [Siemens, 2005], Semler's philosophy [Semler, 1993], and the
Lumiar approach [Groff, 2013]. This new perspective argues that learning for the future should
have the following essential features:
• Learning is also expansive learning: learning to create new knowledge is important.
• Learner agency is key to learning processes.
• Learning is hybrid: an alternation between digital and face-to-face learning.
• A certain balance between formal (structured) learning and informal learning (a
wide range of more unstructured ways of learning supported by technology and
enhanced by social networking).
• A balance between acquiring basic knowledge and generic competences.
• Learning is collaborative and largely self-directed.
• Learning is based on continuous feedback (Assessment as Learning). [Dochy et al.,
2021, p. 10]
In the light of these findings, as an answer for the aforementioned question, high-impact
learning can be achieved by engaging students in good quality and high-impact educational
practices preparing students to participate in a dynamic workplace and an increasingly diverse
world.
HIPs are known as practices increasing student retention and improving student engagement,
which can be introduced in programmes, even if they are traditionally structured curricula that
do not fully aim all principles of High Impact Learning [Dochy & Segers, 2018]. They are
identified as: (1) first-year seminars and experiences, (2) common intellectual experiences, (3)
learning communities, (4) writing-intensive courses, (5) collaborative assignments and
projects, (6) undergraduate research, (7) diversity and global learning, (8) service learning, (9)
internships, (10) capstones and projects and (11) e-Portfolios.
To briefly explain these practices: The first HIP, first-year seminars and experiences, refers to
regular meetings of small groups of students with faculty or staff. To develop students’
intellectual and practical capabilities, they emphasise critical inquiry, frequent writing,
information literacy, collaborative learning, and other skills [Kuh, 2008]. As a second practice,
common intellectual experiences are concerned with the use and incorporation of knowledge
gained from various previously studied core courses. These programs often unite broad
themes, such as technology and society, or unemployment [Alias & Aris, 2016; Kuh, 2008]. The
third practice, learning communities, relates to encouraging the integration of learning across
courses and encouraging students to think beyond the classroom walls. According to Kuh
[2008], students are expected to take two or more linked courses and work as a group with
their professors while exploring a common topic. Next practice, writing-intensive courses,
refers to emphasising writing at all teaching levels and across the curriculum, including senior
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year projects. Students are supported to produce and review a variety of writing styles for
different audiences in different disciplines [Kuh, 2008]. The fifth practice, collaborative
assignments and projects, has two primary goals; while learning to work with people in other
companies, learning to solve the problems and sharpening one’s own understanding by taking
others’ insights seriously. Study groups within a course, team-based assignments and writing,
collaborative projects and research are some of the approaches used in this practice [Kuh,
2008]. The aim of the sixth practice, undergraduate research, was explained by Kuh [2008] as
“to involve students with actively contested questions, empirical observation, cutting-edge
technologies, and the sense of excitement that comes from working to answer important
questions” [p. 10]. This practice sometimes asks students to communicate with community
members to collect data or to document observations [Knouse, 2017]. The other practice,
diversity experiences, highlights studies which help students observe different cultures, life
experiences, and worldviews. These studies often search socio-cultural diversity, religious,
ethnic and gender inequality or the global issues like environment, security, freedom and global
peace. Intercultural studies are enhanced through experiential learning in the community
and/or study abroad [Alias & Aris, 2016; Kuh, 2008]. According to Bringle & Hatcher [1995],
the aim of the eight practice, the service learning, is for students to gain a better understanding
of course content and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility while participating in an
organized service activity that meets identified community needs. According to Sgroi and
Ryniker [2002], the ninth practice, internships, not only provides students enough time to
adequately prepare for their professional future, but also helps students gain understanding of
the demands of the profession while discovering their own “work-readiness skills” [p. 194]. In
other words, the internships are aimed at providing students with direct experience in their
career-related fields with the supervision and the coaching from professionals in the field [Kuh,
2008]. The tenth practice, capstone courses and projects, is also called “senior capstones” since
they are the last projects which should be completed in the final year of undergraduate
experience. They require students to integrate knowledge and skills acquired during college
years and create a project. The project might include a research paper, a performance, a
portfolio of best work, an exhibit of artwork, a creative project, a presentation, reflections, or
creation of an innovative product or service [Kuh, 2008; Pierce et al., 2019]. The last practice,
ePortfolios, allows students to collect their work electronically over time, reflect on their
personal and academic progress, and then share selected items with their professors, advisors,
and potential employers. Since aggregation over time is a key element of the ePortfolio process,
using ePortfolios in collaboration with other high-impact applications provides students with
opportunities to connect a variety of educational experiences [Kuh, 2008].
While research on high-impact learning continues to expand across various disciplines, it
becomes increasingly important to integrate what is already known and achieved. The purpose
of this review is to determine the effects of single, limited combinations (LC) and extended
combinations (EC) of HIPs. As a consequence, the research questions addressed in this review
study are:
1. Which effects do single HIPs have?
2. Which effects do LC of HIPs (<6) have?
3. Which effects do EC of HIPs (≥6) have?
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Arıkan, S., Dochy, F., & Segers, M. (2023). Effects of High-Impact Learning Practices: A Review. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(6).
507-536.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.106.14984
METHODOLOGY
The review we used to contribute to the effects of developing a theoretical framework for high- impact learning is both integrative and interdisciplinary. It is “integrative” since as Taveggia
[1974] mentioned the aim of the review is to summarise the accumulated knowledge about
high-impact learning and to highlight the important issues left unresolved by the research. It is
also “interdisciplinary” because it helps to create a new high-impact learning model by thinking
across boundaries of the different scientific disciplines and sub-disciplines involved in the
study of high-impact learning. Basically, it has been tried to find the effects of high-impact
learning in the interdisciplinary literature, the differences in the effects of different practices
used and the factors in the learning environment that explain these effects. Then, we ripped the
HIPs, their effects and the factors helping to explain the effects apart. Finally, we clustered the
data and reorganised them. Below, we describe the methodology used to identify and classify
the effects and factors.
Criteria for Relevance
Studies from all countries and kinds of disciplines were reviewed and included or rejected
based on their relevance. First, the key words “high-impact practices”, “high-impact learning”,
“high-impact learning practices”, “high-impact teaching”, “high-impact teaching practices”,
“high impact teaching practices”, “high-impact learning methods”, “high-impact teaching
methods”, “high impact learning practices” and “high-impact practice” were searched in the
titles of the studies. Second, the studies published in and after the year 2000 were retrieved.
Third, studies containing qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods were considered
relevant. Finally, for pragmatic considerations sources written in English were included.
Search Terms and Databases
For our search we made use of the electronic platform Google Scholar and the University
LibSearch, which made it possible to search several databases simultaneously. Five databases
were included in the search: APA, PsycINFO, Psychlit, ERIC, Web of Science and FRANCIS. These
databases are either interdisciplinary or highly important within a specific discipline that
addresses the topic of high-impact learning and practices. Disciplines covered are economics,
accounting, finance and business, public administration, negotiation, social work, public policy,
education, forestry and environmental science, engineering, architecture, psychology,
computer science, biomedical sciences, geophysics, mathematics, biology, chemistry, physics,
sociology, social sciences, history, humanities, foreign language, criminal justice, social justice,
media and public relations, management, health professions, anthropology etc. A first selection
of studies was based on the exclusion of the same articles reached by searching different
keywords. This screening resulted in 227 unique sources. A second selection screened our
database on references that were not dissertations which are not peer reviewed and 194
articles remained. A third selection of studies was aiming at selecting peer reviewed research
articles and another 38 publications and reports were excluded from our database. As a result,
156 articles were remained.
The final studies were fully read and selected for inclusion based on various inclusion criteria:
(1) the studies had to be relevant to high-impact learning and its practices (21 articles were
excluded); (2) the studies had to have a clear and strong abstract (10 articles were excluded);
(3) the studies had to contain sufficient methodology, participants and data analysis info (69
articles were excluded). As a result, 56 articles were retrieved (see Table 1).
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Table 1. Results of the literature search: number of studies provided by the database
and the selected articles
Google Scholar + University LibSearch
Key words in the titles 285
Studies published after 2000 285
Unique Sources 227
Articles 194
Peer reviewed research articles 156
Relevant articles 135
Articles having clear and strong abstracts 125
Articles containing sufficient methodology, participants
and data analysis info
56
Of the 56 studies that met our inclusion criteria and were included in the study, 31 were
quantitative studies (55%), 11 were qualitative studies (20%) and 14 were studies with a
mixed method design (25 %).
In this study, a detailed synthesis table was developed after carefully reading the articles, in
which the content of all the studies were discussed in different dimensions (see Appendix A for
a full overview). Following this step, the articles were re-examined according to the effects of
single, LC and EC of HIPs.
Although 31 of the included studies were quantitative in nature, only some did give detailed
information on experimental and control groups. As a consequence, a meta-analysis was not
possible and thus we performed a narrative analysis of the selected studies.
RESULTS
In this section, the results of the study will be explained in detail. The first part will focus on the
single effects of HIPs. In section 3.2 and 3.3, the effects of LC and EC of HIPs will be explained.
Which Effects Do Single HIPs Have?
The results of studies addressing 18 effects of single HIPs were shown in Table 2 and explained
in detail below.
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Arıkan, S., Dochy, F., & Segers, M. (2023). Effects of High-Impact Learning Practices: A Review. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(6).
507-536.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.106.14984
Table 2. The effects of single HIPs
HIP 1 Writing
Effects
- intensive courses
HIP 2 Service
learning
HIP 3 Learning
communities
HIP 4 e-Portfolio
HIP5
Undergraduate
research
HIP 6 Diversity
experiences
HIP 7 First year
seminars & e.
HIP 8 Internships
HIP9 Collaborative
assignments & p.
HIP10 Capstones
courses & p.
Communication
written & oral com. (Anderson et al., 2016); student-faculty
interaction (Perrotta, 2020)
contact with others, written & oral com. (Anderson et al.,
2019); communicative abilities (Knouse, 2018);
interpersonal, multicultural com. skills (Nelson Laird et al.,
2014)
student, faculty interaction (Priest & de Campos Paula,
2016); interacting with different students (Wolaver& Finley,
2020)
sharing achievements with others (Weber & Myrick, 2018)
meaningful conversations with faculty, peers (Ribera et al.,
2017)
communication skills (Simons et al., 2020)
high-level skills in knowledge, writing & speaking practices
(Fassett et al., 2020)
Collaboration
collaborative working, teamwork (Anderson et al.,
2019)
collaboration abilities, trusting relationships
(Einbinder, 2018); peers, faculty collaboration
(Wolaver& Finley, 2020); student collaboration (Price
& Tovar, 2014); peer, faculty support (Ribera, et al.,
2017)
collaborative working (Knouse, 2018; Armstrong- Mensah et al., 2019), combining faculty mentoring,
peer collaboration and physical space into a single
project (Nelson Laird et al., 2014)
learning from each other, (Ferrari & Fine, 2016)
peers & community engagement (Wismath &
Newberry, 2019); working with faculty, staff and
students (Lane & Miller, 2019) working with mentors, supervisors & coaches
(Henderson, 2017); student-faculty interaction,
collaborative learning (Miller, et al., 2011)
learning about and from the collaborators (Kapell et
al., 2017)
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Problem-solving
solving problems (Anderson et al., 2019);
solving real-world problems (Henderson,
2017); development of problem-solving
skills (Simons et al., 2020)
Motivation
motivation (Henderson, 2017); thinking
positively about learning, self-efficacy (Alston &
Ericksen, 2019); academic motivation
(Henderson, 2017)
positive learning environment (Priest & de
Campos Paula, 2016); motivation (Miller et al.,
2011)
realising the activities in e-portfolios (Weber &
Myrick, 2018)
higher intrinsic motivation (Miller et al., 2011)
self-efficacy (Cotten & Thompson, 2016)
Social responsibility
professional responsibility (Henderson, 2017);
increasing civic-awareness (Alston & Ericksen,
2019); civic responsibility, racial awareness
(Simons et al., 2020), civic and social identity
(Trager, 2020) sense of community (Priest & de Campos
Paula, 2016)
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507-536.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.106.14984
High graduation rates
students’ progress
towards graduation
(Wolaver& Finley, 2020);
limited evidence (Bonet &
Walter, 2016)
Attendance
lower absenteeism (Bonet &
Walter, 2016); positively
affecting attendance at
university (Sweat et al. 2013)
Persistence and retention
short-term effects on retention (Bonet &
Walter, 2016); higher rates of retention
(Ribera et al., 2017); positive impacts on
retention (Wolaver& Finley, 2020)
increasing retention rates (Wismath &
Newberry, 2019)
Job-readiness skills
preparation for the labour
force (Armstrong-Mensah
et al., 2019); promoting
career goal setting
(Henderson, 2017)
increasing the probability
of the student planning to
start a job after
graduation (Fassett et al.,
2020)
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Arıkan, S., Dochy, F., & Segers, M. (2023). Effects of High-Impact Learning Practices: A Review. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 10(6).
507-536.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.106.14984
service learning think more positively about their learning than students who do not
participate. Through service learning, students are not only prepared to become good
community citizens but also their self-awareness, civic-awareness and self-efficacy increase. In
addition, Ribera, Miller, & Dumford [2017] stated that service learning is positively associated
with a higher sense of peer belonging and institutional acceptance especially for first-year
students and it makes students more educationally potent while fostering learning,
development and persistence among students. In her study, Knouse [2017] included the
positive effects of service learning on linguistics. She stated that thanks to this course, students
have a chance to re-evaluate their attitudes towards language learning and bilingual education,
overcome their reluctance and fear of speaking with a native speaker, gain confidence in their
communicative abilities. Most importantly, students learn a lot about diversity by being
exposed to in linguistically, religiously, racially and socioeconomically different communities.
Simons, Marshall, Blank, & Weaver [2020] examined the effects of academic-based service
learning (ABSL) which combines academic study with community service, cultural-based
service learning (CBSL) which combines diversity experiences with service learning and
experiential learning (EL) outcomes in psychology courses. The study revealed that ABSL and
CBSL provide students with opportunities to relate course content to the context of service, and
this contributes to students' development of problem-solving skills and civic responsibility
while providing a more detailed understanding of inequalities in society. In addition, adding
diversity content to the service learning course enables students to examine the relationship
between power and privilege in the course and service context. In this way, it will contribute to
students’ racial awareness, the effect of Whiteness, the general cognitive attitude towards
diversity and empathetic responses to racial oppression. Furthermore, service learning is
effective in the development of interpersonal and multicultural communication skills,
charitable behaviour [Nelson Laird, BrckaLorenz, Zilvinskis, & Lambert, 2014], leadership
skills, civic and social identity, career discernment [Trager, 2020] and students’ academic
motivation [Henderson, 2017].
Learning Communities:
Eight studies mentioned the effects of learning communities on learning. According to
Einbinder [2018], learning communities enhance collaboration abilities, pedagogical and
interdisciplinary knowledge, positive mentoring experiences, trusting relationships between
and among the participants and job satisfaction. As Priest & de Campos Paula [2016] mentioned
that learning communities contribute to student success, a sense of community, friendships,
student interaction, interaction with faculty and satisfaction with the college experience. They
also provide a positive learning environment, allow students to engage in diverse perspectives,
increase self-awareness of their own learning and growth. Miller et al. [2011] found in their
study that learning communities are not as engaging and motivating as undergraduate studies
and internships. It was also stated that students do not actively participate in learning
communities as much as they do in undergraduate studies and internships. Additionally,
Wolaver & Finley [2020] found that students joining learning communities in their first year
completed an average of 1.5 times more HIPs by the end of their senior year than those who did
not. This shows that learning communities are increasing the motivation and engagement of
students for HIP participation. In addition, students participating in this practice are more likely
to conduct research with faculty, hold leadership positions, and interact with students of
different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Also, learning communities have positive impacts on
first-year student success, retention, engagement, collaboration with peers and faculty,
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integrated thinking and connections to their living environment. According to Price and Tovar
[2014], learning communities practice is a popular way for faculty to collaborate with each
other and for students to collaborate in the classroom. According to their research, learning
communities allow students to complete developmental education courses more successfully
and earn more college credits and certifications. Moreover, according to the results of Bonet &
Walters's [2016] research, with higher participation, lower absenteeism, and higher student
success, engagement and persistence, learning communities have a positive impact on student
learning outcomes. Furthermore, they claimed that learning communities have short-term
effects on retention and there is "limited evidence" of positive effects on long-term effects, such
as graduation rates [226]. While sharing some results of a research, Ribera et al. [2017] stated
that although the study was limited to a single institution, students who attend learning
communities are more likely to perceive higher levels of peer and faculty support, faculty and
classroom comfort, empathetic faculty understanding and lower isolation. It was also stated
that participating in a learning community positively affects students' sense of peer belonging
and institutional acceptance. In addition, Kilgo, Linley, Renn, & Woodford [2019] announced
that learning communities are positively related with cognitive growth, development and
critical thinking. Sweat, Jones, Han, & Wolfgram [2013] added that students' participation in
learning communities positively affected their academic performance, participation in
productive educational activities, attendance at university, and satisfaction with the university
experience. Also, students of color, fraternity and sorority members, full-time students,
students in pre-professional majors, and students with two or more majors, freshmen from
families with lower levels of parental education, and students living on campus are more likely
to join learning communities.
e-Portfolio:
It is possible to see the positive effects of e-Portfolio on student learning in two studies.
According to Weber & Myrick [2018], using e-Portfolios effectively can stimulate thinking and
foster intellectual and personal growth while improving the strength of other HIPs, such as
service learning, internships, diversity experiences, first year seminars and experiences.
Moreover, for students, e-Portfolio has become a reflection tool where they can continuously
record and track their achievements, evaluate themselves, share these achievements with
others, and use their time efficiently due to its online use feature. It also helps students to set
more conscious and realistic goals for themselves, while increasing their motivation to realise
the activities they write in e-Portfolios. As Rivera & Leobick [2017] mentioned, since e- Portfolios are self-directed tools by students, they also assume the responsibility and
leadership of students’ own experience and learning.
Undergraduate Research:
The effects of undergraduate research were examined in eight studies. The results of Miller et
al.’s [2011] study indicated that undergraduate research promoted greater student
engagement than service learning and learning communities. Also, while it was rated as having
higher level of active participation and intrinsic motivation than service learning and learning
communities, it was perceived less relevant to life than internships and service learning. It was
pointed out that undergraduate research enables students to learn content, develop discipline- specific reasoning skills and practices while working collaboratively [Knouse, 2017;
Armstrong-Mensah, Ramsey-White, & Alema-Mensah, 2019]. Moreover, undergraduate
research was positively related to senior students’ academic GPA [Fassett, Haeger, &
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507-536.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.106.14984
BrckaLorenz, 2020]; enhances personal academic growth, confidence in foundational research
methods, interest in graduate education, preparation for the labour force [Armstrong-Mensah
et al., 2019]; promotes career goal setting, critical thinking and academic skills, such as the
ability to conduct a research and understand scientific findings [Henderson, 2017]; helps to
connect students’ academic and out-of-class lives and encourages them to have meaningful
conversations with faculty and peers [Ribera et al., 2017]. According to Nelson Laird et al.
[2014], undergraduate research with faculty offers students the opportunity to practice newly
learned knowledge as underclass students, to consolidate research skills that increase the
productivity of their institutions, to combine faculty mentoring, peer collaboration and physical
space, such as laboratories and libraries into a single project. However, Fassett et al. [2020]
added that undergraduate research has negative or no relationships with reflective, integrative
and higher-order learning.
Diversity Experiences (Study abroad):
Four studies showed how study abroad experiences effect students’ learning. It was claimed in
the study of Ferrari & Fine [2016] that short-term study abroad experiences can be more
effective than longer programs if they deliberately engage students with host families, cultural
venues, or if students use the host country's mother tongue. Moreover, while this research
supported that short-term study abroad experiences shape the global perspectives of education
leaders and foster a self-authorised worldview influencing the way they run schools, it
remarked that they can also be effective for students to learn from each other, reflect critically
on past experiences, and acquire the skills necessary to be agents of social change. The benefits
of studying abroad were listed as cultural adaptability -the ability to get used to different
cultures from their culture-, self-efficacy, intellectual and personal growth in the study of Cotten
& Thompson [2017]. Furthermore, Fassett et al. [2020] was pointed out that while studying
abroad is positively associated with reflective and integrative learning, it is negatively
associated with higher-level learning.
First Year Seminars and Experiences:
Three studies highlighted the effects of first year seminars and experience on learning. Wismath
& Newberry [2019] stated that the first-year seminar course is an effective tool in increasing
retention rates, as it assists freshmen in their transition from high school to college and
university. It also enables students to engage with their peers and the wider community
through innovative and active learning opportunities, while providing opportunities for
integrating students with the campus culture, engaging in academic participation, and social
interaction. Moreover, Lane & Miller [2019] agreed with Wismath & Newberry that first year
seminars facilitate students' transitions to universities and colleges. According to them, these
seminars facilitate this transition by developing academic skills, such as study and writing
skills, time management, enabling students to use campus resources, and supporting working
with faculty, staff and students. Additionally, according to Kapell, Boersma, DeVita, & Parker
[2017], the purpose of designing these seminars is to help students develop their cognitive
abilities and to develop their critical inquiry.
Internships:
In six studies, the positive effects of internships were declared. Henderson [2017] stated that
thanks to the internships, students have the opportunity to apply what they have learned in
lessons in a working environment. In this way, students gain experience in developing the skills
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they will need in their areas of expertise, where and how they should be applied. In addition,
during the internships, students have the opportunity to work with mentors, supervisors and
coaches who are experts in their fields. Moreover, Miller et al. [2011] stated that internships
increase student engagement and listed the possible reasons for this as academic effort, active
participation, collaborative learning, relevance, student-faculty interactions and motivation.
Furthermore, through participation in an internship, students acquire content knowledge,
time-management, communication skills, cultural competence and responsibility [Simons et al.,
2020]; cognitive growth, development and skills like critical thinking [Kilgo et al., 2019],
openness to diversity, socially responsible leadership skills, sense of independence and
professional development [Nelson Laird et al., 2014]; higher GPA [Fassett et al., 2020]. Fassett
et al. [2020] also remarked that participation in an internship increases the probability of the
student planning to start a job after graduation.
Collaborative Assignment and Projects:
Two studies addressed the effects of collaborative assignments and projects. It was mentioned
by Kapell et al. [2017] that the purpose of collaborative assignments and projects is to take
advantage of the fact that there is so much to learn about and from the insights of collaborators
while working as a team. Also, they claimed that participating in cooperative learning develops
critical thinking and intercultural effectiveness. Price & Tovar [2014] declared that
participation in active and collaborative learning are positive predictors of institutional
graduation rates.
Capstone Courses and Projects:
Four studies mentioned the positive effects of capstone courses and projects on learning. Kilgo
et al. [2019] pointed out that capstones projects experiences have been positively associated
with cognitive growth, development and critical thinking. In addition to increasing student
engagement [Garvey, BrckaLorenz, Latopolski, & Hurtado, 2018; BrckaLorenz, Garvey,
Hurtado, & Latopolski, 2017], capstones courses and projects are reflective as they allow
students to use high-level skills in knowledge, writing and speaking practices and is therefore
valued by faculty, staff and students [Fassett et al., 2020].
Which Effects Do LC of HIPs (<6) Have?
The results of studies addressing 17 effects of 14 LC of HIPs were shown in Table 3 and
explained in detail below.
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Table 3. The effects of LC of HIPs
LC HIPs1
Effects
-Einbinder, 2018 (E); Price
& Tovar, 2014 (P)
LC HIPs2-Priest & de Campos Paula,
2016
LC HIPs3-Dupont & Rodenborg,
2020
LC HIPs4-Miller et al., 2011
LC HIPs5-Perrotta, 2020
LC HIPs6-McDaniel & Van Jura,
2020
LC HIPs7-Knouse, 2018
LC HIPs8-Alston & Ericksen, 2019
LC HIPs9-Farrow & Burt, 2018
L.C HIPs10-Henderson, 2017
LC HIPs11-Kilgo et al., 2019
LC HIPs12-Ribera et al., 2017
LC HIPs13-Simons, et al., 2020
LC HIPs14-Trager, 2020
Collaboration
E, P X X X X
Critical
thinking
E X
Retention
and
graduation
rate
E, P X
Communication
E, P X X X X X X X
Leadership
of learning
X
Positive
learning
environment
X
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Diverse
perspectives
X X X
Personal
growth
X X X X
Transformational
learning
X X X
Sense of
belonging
X X
Leadership
skills
X
Engagement
P X X
Career
relevance
X X X X X
Motivation
X
Problem
solving
X X
Academic
success
X
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Social
responsibility
X X X
LC of HIPs 1 (collaborative assignments and projects, learning communities):
The effects of LC of HIPs 1 were mentioned in two studies. According to Einbinder [2018] and
Price & Tovar [2014], collaborative learning and learning communities enhance collaborative
work, communication between peers and student-faculty interaction, retention and graduation
rates. In addition, while Einbinder [2018] remarked that LC of HIPs foster critical thinking
skills, Price & Tovar [2014] mentioned engagement as one of the effects of LC HIPs 1.
LC of HIPs 2 (undergraduate research, learning communities):
Priest & de Campos Paula [2016] stated that LC of HIPs 2 allow students to engage with diverse
perspectives while helping them become aware of their own learning and personal growth
leading to be a leader of their own learning. This creates not only a sense of belonging, but also
a positive learning atmosphere for students. Through LC HIPs 2, students have the opportunity
to practice leadership with one another providing transformational learning.
LC of HIPs 3 (undergraduate research, internships):
According to Dupont & Rodenborg [2020], participation in LC of HIPs 3 allow students to begin
their first semester by establishing supportive relationships with faculty and peers, and to be
successful in postgraduate opportunities.
LC of HIPs 4 (service learning, undergraduate research, learning communities,
internships):
Miller et al. [2011] remarked that academic effort, collaborative shared knowledge, being
related to the long-term career plans, active participation, student-faculty contact promote
student engagement. Therefore, undergraduate research and internships are more engaging
than service learning and learning communities due to their career relevance, active
participation, collaborative learning and motivation-enhancing features.
LC of HIPs 5 (undergraduate research, writing-intensive courses):
Perrotta [2020] affirmed that writing-intensive courses by implementing asynchronous
discussion boards promote student interaction with peers and faculty. Also, thanks to detailed
feedback on discussion posts, maintaining a strong social presence in online courses and
highlighting campus resources, online faculty supports engagement of students.
LC of HIPs 6 (internships, undergraduate research, study abroad, service learning):
McDaniel & Van Jura [2020] stated that although the compensatory effects of LC of HIPs 6, such
as academic achievement, learning perceptions and retention were not manifested in college
graduation, participation in these practices increase graduation rates.
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LC of HIPs 7 (service learning, undergraduate research):
LC of HIPs 7 foster students to communicate and collaborate with other members in the
community, which leads to personal enlightenment. Moreover, the participants of these
practices take on the responsibility of advocating others with different realities from their own,
while trying to utilize their newly acquired knowledge in a more empathetic way [Knouse,
2017].
LC of HIPs 8 (internships, 1st year seminars and experiences, service learning):
According to Alston & Ericksen [2019], collaboration, critical thinking, diverse perspective,
personal growth and problem solving are the benefits of LC of HIPs 8. Also, increased awareness
is another benefit of HIPs, which allows students to process and regulate their feelings.
Engaging in inter-professional collaborations, critical thinking skills and intimate experience
with real life problems which students are charged with resolving are the additional benefits of
the LC of HIPs 8.
LC of HIPs 9 (service learning, diversity/global learning, internships):
Farrow & Burt [2018] asserted that LC of HIPs 9 demand interaction with others and this
interaction allows students to observe how the materials they are studying do work in a variety
of settings.
LC of HIPs 10 (undergraduate research, internships, study abroad, service learning,
collaborative assignments & projects):
Henderson [2017] stated that discipline-specific (i.e. engineering-related) practices and long- term participation in these practices facilitate postgraduate career commitment in engineering.
However, according to him, other commonly elevated high-impact practices, such as research
experiences, were not found to be significantly related to post-graduation employment.
LC of HIPs 11 (internships, undergraduate research, learning community, senior
experience, study abroad):
Kilgo et al. [2019] argued that although internships, senior experience, study abroad, learning
community, and undergraduate research have an impact on student learning and academic
development, these practices have less impact on LGBTQ+ students than other subpopulations.
In addition, among the mentioned practices, only the instructor relations in undergraduate
research have a positive effect on the academic development of LGBQ+ students.
LC of HIPs 12 (learning communities, undergraduate research, service learning):
Ribera et al. [2017] stated that participating in a learning community and a service learning
project was positively associated with students' sense of peer belonging and institutional
acceptance. In addition, according to the study, although research with faculty was positively
associated with a stronger sense of institutional acceptance, it had no effect on peer belonging.
LC of HIPs 13 (service learning, internships):
Simons et al. [2020] declared that LC of HIPs 13 enhance intercultural and interpersonal
interaction, ethnocultural identity and understanding of diversity content of students. Service
learning offers students the opportunity to relate the course content to the service context, to
gain problem-solving skills, to develop empathic understanding and civic responsibility. With
experiential learning, students have the opportunity to learn about different careers.
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LC of HIPs 14 (integration of service learning and internship, a community-based
internship (CBI)):
Trager [2020] pointed out that participation in a CBI affects the university, community partners
and undergraduate students. It was declared that thanks to the CBI, the university is able to
meet administrative needs and establish a closer link with the community. CBI has also helped
universities to provide work experience preparing students for business and remain committed
to their civic mission. For community partners, new ideas from students and increased work
performance have been beneficial. Students, on the other hand, develop professional skills,
encounter career differentiation opportunities and gain access to networks related to their
professional fields. Also, students develop a sense of civic identity as they confront social issues
and power dynamics.
Which Effects Do EC of HIPs (≥6) Have?
The results of studies addressing 16 positive effects of EC of HIPs were shown in Table 4 and
explained in detail under five main headings.
Table 4. The effects of EC of HIPs
Effects of EC of HIPs Achievement-focused effects
being positively related to students’ graduation rates and retention (Dinh & Zhang, 2021;
Kilgo et al., 2015; Myers et al., 2019; Larson et al., 2020; Murray, 2015; Nelson Laird et al.,
2014; Sweat et al., 2013); not having positive effects on students’ graduation rates and
retention (Wu & Park, 2019; McDaniel & Van Jura, 2020; Johnson & Stage, 2018).
higher academic achievements (Nelson Laird et al., 2014; Shavers & Mitchell, 2019; Dinh
& Zhang, 2021; Zilvinskis & Dumford, 2018; Garvey et al., 2018; Armstrong-Mensah et al.,
2019); strong social network and close friendships (Conefrey, 2021); increased cognitive
and academic gains (Fassett et al.,2020); attending HIPs makes students more successful
(Smith et al., 2017); be positively associated with student academic achievement (Johnson
& Stage, 2018); HIPs and academic achievement differed by class status (i.e.,
freshman/second year and junior/senior) and gender (Gipson & Mitchell, 2017).
Motivation-focused effects
making students’ education more meaningful since HIPs prepare students for their post- graduation careers (Bampasidou et al., 2016; Murphrey et al., 2016); thanks to HIPs,
students applied and made sense of what they learned (Armstrong-Mensah et al., 2019).
promoting student engagement and motivation (Murphrey et al., 2016; Myers et al.,
2019; Armstrong-Mensah et al., 2019; Conefrey, 2021; Garvey et al., 2018; Ishaq & Bass,
2019; Rodriguez & Koubek, 2019; Shavers & Mitchell, 2019; Murray, 2015); having a
meaningful mentoring relationship with faculty members provides the student with self- confidence, motivation and engagement (Sweat et al., 2013); although all HILPs positively
affect the engagement of students to transfer, only student-faculty interaction was
ineffective (Zilvinskis & Dumford, 2018).
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Competence/skills development-focused effects
providing transformative learning through bridging the knowledge and skills gained
throughout a university experience (Zilvinskis & Dumford, 2018), carrying one’s curriculum
participations into the post-university transition (Myers et al., 2019), connecting the course
materials with real life experiences (Goulette & Denney, 2018; Murphrey et al., 2016),
transferring the knowledge students have acquired at higher rates (Wu & Park, 2019),
increasing the likelihood of a new college graduate being hired (Kapell et al., 2017).
fostering leadership skills are enhanced by leadership experiences and group work
component of HIPs (Bampasidou et al., 2016).
providing student and faculty/ peers/ community interaction (Dinh & Zhang, 2021;
Armstrong-Mensah et al., 2019; BrckaLorenz et al., 2017); making students feel valued and
validated softening cold classroom environments and facilitating positive learning for all
students; leading to receiving higher GPAs and having greater confidence in students’
academic abilities (Garvey et al., 2018).
thinking critically (Bampasidou et al., 2016; Murphrey et al., 2016; Kapell et al., 2017; Kilgo
et al., 2015; Myers et al., 2019; Fassett et al., 2020; Shavers & Mitchell, 2019).
developing time management (Bampasidou et al., 2016).
developing students’ job-readiness skills (Bampasidou et al., 2016; Murphrey et al., 2016;
Armstrong-Mensah et al., 2019; Miller et al., 2018; Dinh & Zhang, 2021; Goulette &
Denney, 2018); deepening one’s learning to include situations one may face in the future
careers (Goulette & Denney, 2018).
Personal development-focused effects
enhancing personal growth and/or social development (Miller et al., 2011) through
participating in activities outside of the classroom for a certain period of time, enabling
students to apply what they have learned or making sense of their learning and providing
metacognitive gains (Armstrong-Mensah et al., 2019); gaining social, personal and
academic experience results in greater connection and investment in university
experiences (Garvey et al., 2018).
appreciation for diversity (Shavers & Mitchell, 2019; Morgan et al., 2021; Myers et al.,
2019; Kilgo et al., 2015; Miller et al., 2011); being willing to be exposed to and tolerant of
perspectives different from their own; had higher levels of civic engagement in the
attitudinal and behavioural dimensions (Myers et al., 2019).
becoming a leader of one’s own learning thanks to evaluating one’s strengths and
weaknesses, and being expected to make adjustments on one’s own to make the most of
one’s experience (Goulette & Denney, 2018).
being aware of one’s own skills, abilities and beliefs through improving students' ability
to become more aware of their personal values and beliefs about a particular topic or
problem (Goulette & Denney, 2018); increasing students' self-evaluation of their academic
abilities (Conefrey, 2021).
Learning process-focused
effects
enhancing learning by supporting cumulative student learning (Ishaq & Bass, 2019), with
the projects in and outside of the classes (Armstrong-Mensah et al., 2019); collaborative
learning and undergraduate research were beneficial to students’ learning while study
abroad, internship, service learning and capstone courses and projects had lower impact
on the learning of students (Kilgo et al., 2015; Rodriguez & Koubek, 2019).
encouraging collaboration among students through exposing students to recognising
different perspectives that they had never thought of before (Goulette & Denney, 2018);
learning from each other as much as learning from teachers while working collaboratively
(Rodriguez & Koubek, 2019).
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Achievement-Focused Effects:
Ten studies examined the relationship between student graduation rates, retention and HIPs.
Seven of these studies have shown that HIPs are positively associated with student retention
and/or graduation rates, promote retention and graduation rates among racial/ethnic minority
college students, and increase retention, particularly among racially underrepresented
students. On the other hand, three studies found that students involved in HIPs were more
likely to complete college within six years compared to their non-included peers, but there was
no evidence of compensatory effects among students included in HIPs. There was statistically
no significant relationship between student learning gains and retention in the HIPs
implemented courses and the relationship between some HIPs, such as first-year seminars or
study abroad and retention was not clear. In eleven studies, participation in HIPs was
associated with higher academic achievement. These studies stated that HIPs increase
academic achievement due to the opportunity to establish strong social networks with peers,
provide cognitive and academic gains, such as critical thinking and GPA, and enable low- achieving students to be more successful than students who do not participate in HIPs. In
addition, while first-year seminars, writing-intensive courses, learning communities, and
service learning are positively associated with student academic achievement, the associations
between HIPs and academic achievement differs by class status (i.e. freshman/second year and
junior/senior) and gender.
Motivation-Focused Effects:
Three studies noted that HIPs make students' education more meaningful. The reason for this
is explained as HIPs prepare students for their post-graduation careers and enable students to
make sense of what they have learned by applying. Additionally, eleven studies highlighted that
HIPs promote student engagement and motivation. It has also been stated that having a
meaningful mentoring relationship with faculty members will motivate students. On the other
hand, one study claimed that although all HIPs positively affect the engagement of students to
transfer, only student-faculty interaction was ineffective.
Competence/Skills Development-Focused Effects:
Six studies addressed the transformative learning effect of HIPs. This effect was explained in
studies as the ability of students to carry the knowledge and skills they have gained throughout
their university years to post-university life and to associate course materials with real life
experience. It was noted that transferable skills developed with HIPs are sought after by
employers in their recruitment processes, further increasing the likelihood of a new college
graduate being hired. Leadership skills provided through HIPs are discussed in one study. The
leadership experiences and group work component provide opportunities for students to
develop meaningful career skills. Four studies affirmed that student participation in HIPs was
positively correlated with student and faculty/ peers/ community interaction. According to
these studies, HIPs provide opportunities to interact with faculty, a prerequisite for academic
development and engagement, soften cold classroom environments, facilitate positive learning,
increase the likelihood that students will receive higher GPAs and be more confident in their
academic abilities. Seven studies showed that participation in HIPs encourages students to
think critically, and one study declared that HIPs improve time management. According to six
studies, HIPs enable students to experience situations they may face in their future careers,
improving job-readiness skills and preparing students for future careers.
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Personal Development-Focused Effects:
Three studies indicated that participation in HIPs enhances students' personal growth and/or
social development. Students apply what they have learned, obtain metacognitive gains, have
social, personal and academic experiences, and thus give more importance to their university
experience. Five studies emphasized that HIPs were positively associated with an appreciation
of diversity, and students who consistently participated in diversity experiences have higher
levels of civic engagement in attitudinal and behavioural dimensions. One study emphasized
that through HIPs students are often asked to critically reflect on their high-impact experiences
before, during and after the completion of their project. Through self-reflection, students assess
their strengths and weaknesses, make self-adjustments to get the most out of their experience,
and become leaders of their own learning. Two studies noted that HIPs improve students'
ability to be aware of their own skills, abilities, beliefs, and increase students' self-evaluation of
their academic abilities.
Learning Process-Focused Effects:
Four studies stated that HIPs enhance learning. HIPs foster learning through projects in and
outside of the classes and empower students by enriching their overall academic experience. In
addition, while study abroad, internship, service learning and capstone courses and projects
have lower impact on students' learning, collaborative learning and undergraduate research
are more effective on students' learning since they allow students to integrate their learning
across multiple levels and domains. Two studies showed that HIPs encourage collaboration
among students, so that students are exposed to recognising different perspectives they had
never considered before, and they have the opportunity to learn from each other as much as
they learn from their teachers.
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
One of the biggest concerns in the field of education recently is whether colleges and higher
education institutions offer educational programs that provide their students with the basic
skills and competences necessary to meet the requirements of the labour market and achieve
their goals in a globalised world. In an ever-changing world, while the needs of the labour
market, the expectations of society and the goals of people change rapidly and constantly, the
teaching process should not be carried out with traditional methods within the classroom walls.
Today, many researchers have carried out various studies to determine the validity of HIPs in
undergraduate education and their positive results for students.
The aim of the study was to examine the studies on HIPs, to determine the effects of single HIPs
(RQ1), LC of HIPs (RQ 2) and EC of HIPs (RQ3). In this way, it will contribute to developing a
theoretical framework for high-impact learning by responding to the current lack of integration
in this field. The findings obtained in the light of the research questions as a result of our
literature review can be concluded as follows:
In response to the first research question, 18 effects were determined on which single HIPs
enhanced. The detected effects can be listed as: communication, collaboration, problem solving,
motivation, social responsibility, personal growth and social development, sense of belonging
and institutional acceptance, leadership skills, leadership positions, knowledge transfer, critical
thinking, academic success, engagement, high graduation rates, attendance, persistence and
retention, job-readiness skills and time management. Also, critical thinking through 9 practices,
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communication through 7 practices, and collaboration through 7 practices were the most
promoted effects of single HIPs. Moreover, Learning communities (14 effects), Service learning
(11 effects), and Internships (11 effects) were the single HIPs having the most and diverse
impact while Capstone courses and projects (3 effects) and Collaborative assignments and
projects (2 effects) were the single HIPs having the least impact. Furthermore, no study
examined the direct effects of Common intellectual experiences and one study pointed out that
undergraduate research and diversity learning have no or negative relationships with higher- order learning.
In response to the second research question, fourteen LC of HIPs with 17 positive effects were
detected. These are increased collaboration, critical thinking, retention and graduation rates,
communication, leadership of learning, positive learning environment, diverse perspectives,
personal growth, transformational learning, sense of belonging, leadership skills, engagement,
career relevance, motivation, problem solving, academic success and social responsibility.
Additionally, communication through five LC of HIPs, collaboration through five LC of HIPs and
career related opportunities through five LC of HIPs were the most common effects. Moreover,
LC of HIPs 2 (undergraduate research, learning communities) through 7 effects and LC of HIPs
7 (service learning, undergraduate research) through 6 effects had the most and diverse effects
while LC HIPs of 6 (internships, undergraduate research, study abroad, service learning), LC
HIPs of 10 (undergraduate research, internships, study abroad, service learning, collaborative
assignments & projects) and LC HIPs of 12 (learning communities, undergraduate research,
service learning) through 1 effect had the least impact.
In response to the last research question, it has been detected that EC of HIPs lead to 16 positive
effects which can be grouped under five main headings that are achievement-focused effects
(graduation rates and retention, higher academic achievements), motivation-focused effects
(meaningful education, engagement and motivation), competence/skills development-focused
effects (transformative learning, leadership skills, student and faculty/peer/community
interaction, thinking critically, time management, job-readiness skills), personal development- focused effects (personal growth and /or social development, appreciation for diversity, being
a leader of one’s own learning, being aware of one’s own skills, abilities and beliefs) and
learning process-focused effects (enhancing learning, collaboration). Except three studies
which claimed that there is no significant relationship between HIPs and student graduation
rates and retention, other findings demonstrated that EC of HIPs have a wide range of positive
effects. EC of HIPs have the most competence/skills development-focused effects with their
features of developing transformative learning, leadership skills, student and
faculty/peer/community interaction, critical thinking, time management and job-readiness
skills. Additionally, student engagement and motivation (in 11 studies), higher academic
achievements (in 11 studies), critical thinking (in 7 studies), graduation rates and retention (in
7 studies) were the most common effects of EC of HIPs.
In conclusion, when the effects of single, LC and EC of HIPs were examined, it was clearly seen
that while HIPs equip learners with field-based knowledge and job-readiness skills that can be
transferred from university life to business life, they also enable students to recognise their
own beliefs, skills and abilities, be leaders of their own learning, cooperate with society and
their peers, respect differences, to solve problems they may encounter in real life by thinking
critically. In this way, learners become competent individuals open to communication and
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collaboration, respectful of different views, and able to meet the expectations of the rapidly
changing world and business life.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The use of inclusion criteria in the research to focus on the field of research studies on high- impact learning also causes limitations in the study. First of all, only articles were included in
the scope of the research, and master's and doctoral studies in this field were not included.
However, a review of master's and doctoral studies in this field can complement our findings.
Secondly, this research was carried out by examining only English sources. Examining research
in other languages on high-impact learning will not only add variety to the results of this study,
but will also provide an opportunity to compare results from English sources with those
published in other languages.
Finally, this review looked only at the relationships between HIPs and their effects on learning
environments. However, other factors like demographic background were not included in this
study. Therefore, this research can be a starting point for further investigation of other factors
that may affect students' learning.
Despite the aforementioned limitations, the current review provides a clear overview of the
effects of HIPs in learning environments, thus demonstrating the results of practices that can
be implemented to make the learning process more effective and of high quality. The results of
this review can form the basis for new research seeking to answer questions about how
learning and coaching (see Dochy, Segers, & Arikan, 2022) should be more effective and
permanent.
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