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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 9, No. 2
Publication Date: February 25, 2022
DOI:10.14738/assrj.92.11692. Mabade, A. S. (2022). Towards Improving Decision-making Capabilities in Higher Education for Stressful Periods: A Participatory
Action Research Approach (PARA). Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 9(2). 32-47.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Towards Improving Decision-making Capabilities in Higher
Education for Stressful Periods: A Participatory Action Research
Approach (PARA)
Avhurengwi Samson Mabade (PhD)
Walter Sisul University, Department of Adult Education and
Education Foundations, Nelson Mandela Drive, Mthatha
Eastern Cape Province, Republic of South Africa
ABSTRACT
Of late, South African higher education sectors have been engulfed with
spontaneous and frequent protests by students. These protests have often led into
violence and horrifying physical injuries to some victims, some victims being
students, while some are members of the public. Amongst others, the latest
episodes of the #FeesMustFall movement and protests bear witness. During this
violence, valuable time is lost and assets are vandalized and also destroyed. The
state has also suffered implacable budgetary loses when property gets torched and
destroyed. Various studies have mushroomed investigating the causes of these
violence and in addition their resolves. However, this literature has a gap because
it fails to investigate the critical issue on decision-making during critical times.
Decision-making plays a major role during these times. However, decision-making
being not a simplistic issue needs to be developed to an extent of worthwhile
decision-making and avoiding naïve arguments as well as opportunism. The aim of
this article is to improve decision-making capabilities through knowledge
management and critical thinking. Critical thinking enhances the potential of being
judgmental. This qualitative study which uses desktop approach and PARA focuses
on the higher education sector of South Africa. However, the higher education
sector is vast as it includes hundreds of TVET colleges and several universities for
example. For the purpose of this study, one rural-based university was purposively
selected for study. The data was collected through qualitative technique. Collected
data was analyzed using thematic code and results presented as main report.
Key words: Knowledge, Knowledge management and Decision-making
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Since the advent of democracy in South Africa, institutions of higher learning are predominated
by violence more often. The violence seems to occur after decision -making by either students
themselves or leadership and management of the institutions. Although problems happen to
prevail in the institutions of higher learning, they are not insurmountable if information from
institutions of higher learning is obtained and used in the process of decision making. This
includes institution-based problems. The state also suffers implacable budgetary loses when
properties get torched and destroyed. Teaching and learning is jeopardized. Institution of
higher learning is an organization with full information that could help students to make
worthwhile decisions. However decision-making is a skill that needs to be developed through
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Mabade, A. S. (2022). Towards Improving Decision-making Capabilities in Higher Education for Stressful Periods: A Participatory Action Research
Approach (PARA). Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 9(2). 32-47.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.92.11692
knowledge development and critical thinking. If the information could be accessible and readily
available to students, these could help to broaden the scope of accountability for good or quality
decision making before terrifying violence could occur. Just information, is not enough but
critical understanding of the information is vital. The information from this organization helps
students to build their knowledge that would contribute towards their decision making though
is not a simplistic issue. An institution of higher learning is an organization like any
organization.
The institutions of higher learning use information to make sense of change in their
environments, to create new knowledge for innovation and to make decisions about courses of
action. Through sense making, people in an organization give meaning to the events and actions
of the organization. During knowledge creation, the individuals’ insights are converted into
knowledge that can be used to design new products or improve performance. In decision
making, understanding and knowledge are focused on the choice of and commitment to an
appropriate course of action (Choo, 1996)
An organization needs to know what it knows as part of knowledge management although there
are many ways to clarify what knowledge management is. The organization also needs to be
able to put this knowledge in some formal ways where other people or employees could
possible use it. It needs to turn an organizational knowledge into explicit information. In turn
people or employees need to be able to use this information to turn it into their own knowledge
and be able to create and share additional knowledge from it. This helps people to move from
the level of general knowledge into a level of specific knowledge. Knowledge alone without
management is not sufficient and efficient in any decision-making process. That is knowledge
management that could contribute significantly towards decision making (Teg,2012).
Therefore students should not be left at the level of general knowledge if an institution has full
information more especially in the democratic culture. They should not hesitate to start
knowing what they have to know. They have to turn this knowledge into they own knowledge
for better decision making. If students are abreast of any development in an institution of higher
learning, this would help them to be equivocal and take worthwhile decision. A person who
does not have knowledge is dangerous in any Community hence knowledge alone without
management is more dangerous. Both emotional and social intelligence are crucial in the
decision making to avoid decision that could be facilitated by emotions.
According to Teg (2012), Knowledge management comprised of nine activity classes. The first
five are considered primary while the last four are secondary. Primary classes are used to
manipulate knowledge resources but secondary classes are involved in supporting and guiding
the performance of the primary activities. Holsaple and Singh developed a framework called
the knowledge chain model which reviews these nine classes of activity in light of Porter’s value
chain model.
When one makes decision, one should have a critical understanding of the organization.
Therefore critical knowledge is vital in any decision making process.Unless one can manage
one’s knowledge, one could hardly make worthwhile decision. The knowledge of the institution
of higher learning is crucial in the decision making by both university community members and
students. After uncaring and scathing decision making, violence usually prevails which results
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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 9, Issue 2, February-2022
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
vandalizing of Community and institution properties, people get injured and sometimes other
people could happen to loose their lives.
According to Renn,Webler, Rakel, Daniel and Johnson (1993) public participation in decision
making occurs in the form of Citizen panels organized into three major components reception
of information lectures, field tours, video, written material processing of information through
small group discussions, plenary, hearings and evaluation. For this study, the public
participation will be in the form of Students Representatives and University Community
through small group discussions, plenary sessions, and hearings, recording, analyzing and
interpreting their responses. The participants demonstrate knowledge management in the
discussions.
Knowledge management is imperative in the decision-making process under any
circumstances. This adds to knowledge as the first attribute of decision-making process. Critical
understanding of the knowledge is fundamental in order to take worthwhile decision making.
Knowledge management could hardly have single definition; however Knowledge management
is a meticulous approach towards the optimization of a firm’s knowledge economy. It involves
several elements like human resources practices, technology, culture and organizational
structures. Knowledge management should have a basic understanding of knowledge
operations and infrastructures to support the organizational operations. Knowledge
management is the process of using meticulous steps to acquire, design, manage and share
knowledge within an organization to achieve better performance such as reduced costly
rework, faster work and use of best practice (Abubakar, Elrehail, Alatailat and Elc,i ,2017) For
this study knowledge management refers to the ability to use the knowledge that a person
might have acquired during studies or from experiences to deal with the problems arising in
that particular environment. Hence a person applies knowledge step by step to the satisfaction
of the people affected by the decision taken. This includes an appropriate application of
knowledge that an individual has acquired through learning and experience to minimize the
conflict and maximize the responsiveness to the people’s demands. The knowledge acquired
should improve decision-making towards the solutions to some of the institution –based
problems.
Knowledge management focuses on problem solving and therefore is strongly problem
oriented. This has to do with the improvement of the performance of individuals and
organization by maintaining and leveraging the value of knowledge assets (Zhang, Zhou and
Nunamaker, 2002)
Knowledge management should also help to specify knowledge form hence it is grouped into
knowledge based on common sense and personal experience, knowledge based on technical
expertise and knowledge derived from social interests and advocacy. These three knowledge
forms are integrated into a sequential procedure in which different decision makers could
implement (Renn, Webler,Rakel ,Daniel and Johnson, 1993) Therefore, it is essential to
understand knowledge-based on common sense, personal experience and technical expertise
to avoid decision that could be facilitated by common sense. It is apparent that unless you have
aspiration and knowledge management you would make worthwhile decision that would help
to reinvent the organization.
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Mabade, A. S. (2022). Towards Improving Decision-making Capabilities in Higher Education for Stressful Periods: A Participatory Action Research
Approach (PARA). Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 9(2). 32-47.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.92.11692
Although it is not easy to make a worthwhile decision, decision making can still be improved if
knowledge management strategy is driven by the organizational strategy and all the phases of
decision making are considered. Knowledge management is a well established and developed
area that allows efficient knowledge flow and knowledge sharing process to prevail amongst
community members or members of any institution. Most of the knowledge management has
been restricted to the management of know-how, know-what and know-why in the decision
making (Liu, Leat, Moizer, Megicks and Kasturiratne, 2012). Knowledge gives people the power
to make decisions and to act. Knowledge management is responsible for determining which
information is needed and for overseeing the acquisition and dissemination of information.
Improving knowledge management do not only help decision makers but also those affected by
decisions (Zhang,Zhou and Nunamaker, 2002). Nobody knows everything just as no one knows
nothing hence the little knowledge one has, could also contribute in the decision making as long
as it is well managed.
Decision making occurs after people would have reached a dead log without a satisfactory
response under conditions of complexity and is a demanding task because of a number of
challenges. The decisions that need to be made involve all Community members or students
and their lecturers, the processes need to engage a wide range of stakeholders with different
roles, from none members of structures to the executive members of different community
structures, due to the nature of problem, decision making needs to be made at different times.
There could be dominant role players or passive partners in the decision making and this affects
how the decisions are reached when there are conflicting interest and priorities in existence.
Some of the role players could remain dissident although there could be a fact. This happens
when people are against a person instead of his or her ideas. ( Liu, Leat, Moizer,Megicks and
Kasturiratne, 2013).
Decision making becomes a problem when Community members or students disagree with the
appointed decision makers. This happens where there is a claim by the interest groups and the
appointed decision makers. Community members or students should be an integral part of
decision making. The evaluation of option, performance profiles for each decision option and
Community recommendations are the three steps to be taken into account during the process
of decision making (Renn, Wabler, Rakel, Daniel and Johnson, 1993). During the decision
making process, those who are to make decision need to perceive the problem, gather relevant
information, make the right judgment and conduct a plan of action. The problem that might
threaten decision making environment should be dealt with consistence in a timely manner. In
a real situation, real time decision makers encounter a variety of challenges, like gathering
information in a timely and accurate manner. How to store, organize and manage information
efficiently so that the resources can be accessed and shared? How to reuse knowledge or past
experience to facilitate current decision making? The challenges are generated by the
characteristics of real time decision situation such as mission critical or time critical, real time
acquisition and analysis of distributed data, uncertainty due to the dynamically changing
situation and cognitive overload (Zhang, Zhou and Nunamaker, 2002).
The Sociopolitical landscape sometimes informs the decision makers on what option could be
suitable in a particular environment. This on the other hand could appear as a challenge to the
decision makers by the predilection that could be remarkably explained by those appeared to
be accustomed to the politics of that particular environment.
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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 9, Issue 2, February-2022
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
The researcher adopted Participatory Action Research Approach within a Critical paradigm.
Participatory Action Research Approach is a study which aims towards empowering and
building the capacity of the participants. The critical paradigm focuses on radical change. For
this study, the focus is on the empowerment of the participants. The researcher employed
qualitative technique for the collection of data. The researcher selected purposively, students
from one of the rural-based Universities in Eastern Cape Province. Fifteen students were
selected purposively from student representatives. Five students were selected from each
group that is second year students, third year and fourth year students. The purpose of selecting
these students was to find their experiences of making decision during tough times more
especially after each problem since they are abreast of the university situation. The participants
were interviewed individually at their respective places after classes. The same questions were
used for the individual interviews. The purpose for using the same questions was to find
different views on the same questions. Another purpose was to confirm the validity and
reliability of the instrument. Their responses were recorded and transcribed after each
interview. The findings were presented, analyzed, synthesized and interpreted. The findings
were presented as a report.
RESULTS
Individuals’ responses to interview questions
The responses to the interview questions were recorded and then transcribed by the
researcher. The respondents used their experiences to respond to the interview questions. The
purpose of the interviews was to find out if the respondents have knowledge about decision- making and institution-based problems. The aim of the research was to inform the reader that
decision making is not a simplistic issue hence it needs skills and development.
The respondents appeared to have different understanding and views on decision-making. The
interview questions were based on the understanding of decision-making and institution-based
problems. Below are the responses to the interview questions:
What is an Institution-based problem?
The first respondent indicated that an Institution-based problem includes problems that affect
students such as a shortage of study materials and failing to provide students with their needs.
The second respondent defined Institution-based problem as the needs of the community
institution including the students’ needs. The third respondent pointed out that this includes
shortage of learning materials such as books and equipments such as projectors. The fourth
respondent showed that this refers to lack of equipments that support learning and teaching
including electricity backup such as generators. The fifth respondent pointed out that this
includes the shortage of qualified lecturers which results the appointment of unqualified and
under qualified lecturers. These ultimately give high failure rate in the institution. This also
includes unfair distribution of funds to students. The sixth respondent indicated that this is a
problem affecting a particular institution and does not affect the next institution like the online
teaching problem. The institution accustomed to online teaching might have its own problem
except online teaching. The seventh respondent showed that this includes an institution or
organisation barriers that may have negative impact towards the growth and development of
the institution such as shortage of teaching and learning materials. The eighth respondent
pointed out that these are problems or troubles that are experienced by a particular institution
which could not be the same in the vicinity institutions. The ninth respondent showed that this
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Mabade, A. S. (2022). Towards Improving Decision-making Capabilities in Higher Education for Stressful Periods: A Participatory Action Research
Approach (PARA). Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 9(2). 32-47.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.92.11692
includes WiFi problem, online teaching and learning, shortage of laboratories and lack of
learning and supporting materials. The tenth respondent indicated that this refers to problems
that arise in a particular institution such as conflict between the students and management
more especially on the allocation of funds. The eleventh respondent indicated that this is a
problem emanating in that particular institution including students uprising and lack of
cooperation between students and management. The twelfth respondent pointed out that this
refers to problems that hamper the development and growth of the institution. The thirteenth
respondent showed that this is a problem that affects a particular institution and needs to be
resolved by that affected institution only. The fourteenth respondent indicated that this is a
situation-based problem which affects the service offered to people concerned. This can be in a
formal or informal setting institution.
The responses to the question indicated that the respondents have clear understanding of
institution-based problem. They appeared to know some of institution-based problems
affecting a number of institutions and how they jeopardize teaching and learning.
What do you understand by decision-making?
The first respondent showed that this is the stage of concluding what you could be settling or
discussing. This includes giving the final words. The second respondent indicated that this is
the process of indicating what should be done or what should not be taken into consideration.
The third respondent pointed out that this is the ability to conclude the matter under
discussions. This includes the ability to stand and make a ruling. The fourth respondent
indicated that is when you decide to take a specific action towards settling or solving a
particular problem. The fifth respondent pointed out that this is when a person decides on the
last course of action to take to rescue the situation. The sixth respondent showed that this is a
process of making a choice by identifying and gathering information about a resolution to the
problem. This includes assessing the information people have at a point in time. The seventh
respondent indicated that this is a process of making a choice of decision to improve the
situation. The eighth respondent pointed out that is a process of choosing a wise decision or
action. The ninth respondent showed that this includes making the final choice of action after
comparing different inputs from all people involved. The tenth respondent indicated that this
occurs when there is a problem which needs to be resolved and then you have to take a final
decision to the problem. The eleventh respondent pointed out that is when you have to a
decision about a certain problem in order to solve it. The twelfth respondent indicated that
decision making needs a wise man because this is a process of deciding on the future of people
or institution. You have to be well conversant to the problem as well as the situation. The
thirteenth respondent showed that this is a process of making choice by identifying decisions
and gather enough information to decide on a ruling. The fourteenth respondent indicated that
it is the process of making a decision based on the information gathered and identified most
relevant ones to inform your decision.
The responses to the question appeared that the respondents understand what decision- making is. They are aware that this is a process that needs a wise decision maker who will have
to gather enough information first to make worthwhile decision.
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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 9, Issue 2, February-2022
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What informs your decision making process?
The first respondent pointed out that the effects of the problem or a situation a person is facing
help to inform decision making process. The views of other people can inform your decision
making process because these can help to make a choice. The respondent further indicated that
the interest sometimes informs decision process. The third respondent showed that this is
informed by experience a person has and the nature of the problem. The environment also
contributes towards decision make of a specific kind. The fourth respondent indicated that the
information that one should have collected and the knowledge of the steps to follow when one
makes a decision. The fifth respondent showed that the knowledge that a person has about the
problem, helps in the decision making process. The sixth respondent pointed out that the
information about the problem and the situation informs decision making process. The
experience of a person of dealing with the problem of the same character also informs decision
making process. The seventh respondent indicated that the environment where one grew,
contribute towards decision making process. The environment which is predominated by
uneducated people informs poor decision making unlike environment predominated by people
who are knowledgeable. The eighth respondent pointed out that the prediction of the future
and the knowledge about the problem inform decision-making process. The ninth respondent
indicated that self motivation and ideas from other people help in the decision making process.
The tenth respondent pointed out that problem solving skills inform decision making process.
Decision taking is not a simple issue, therefore one should have knowledge. The eleventh
respondent indicated that knowledge of the problem and knowledge about problem solving
techniques are significant in the decision making process. The twelfth respondent pointed out
that the capacity of the individuals informs their decision making process. The thirteenth
respondent showed that relevant information about the problem informs decision making
process and the ability to assess and analyze the information are fundamental. The fourteenth
respondent indicated that critical thinking of a person informs decision-making process.
The responses to the question indicated that decision making process is not a simplistic issue.
Knowledge is paramount important in any decision making process. The relevant information
is also significant in decision making process.
How do you get knowledge that would empower you in the decision-making?
The first respondent indicated that this is possible if you trying to identify points from any
discussion. One should analyze the knowledge that one got to find out if it is valuable to other
people. It is also important to understand information processing technique to get knowledge.
The second respondent pointed out that by listening to other people one could get knowledge
as well as by reading books, more especially related to problem solving. The third respondent
showed that knowledge is acquired through research related to a particular problem. The
fourth respondent indicated that people get knowledge by researching what you want to
understand better so that you can help other people. If you ask other people who appear to
have knowledge better than you, you can get knowledge. Sometimes you can ask people who
once experienced the same problem. The fifth respondent showed that one could get knowledge
by listening to other people and reading books. The respondent further indicated that by
searching information from the previous researches that could be used for decision making.
The sixth respondent pointed out that by thinking critically, one could get knowledge. Creative
and critical thinking help to get more knowledge that could help in the decision-making. The
seventh respondent indicated that by becoming friendly to someone who is highly educated
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Mabade, A. S. (2022). Towards Improving Decision-making Capabilities in Higher Education for Stressful Periods: A Participatory Action Research
Approach (PARA). Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 9(2). 32-47.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.92.11692
making, this would help them when making decisions. Some of us grow without parents who
can advise us how to make decision. Youth are implicated in Gender Based Violence because of
poor decision making. The mortality rate of student in Higher Institutions of learning could be
reduced. The sixth respondent indicated that this will also help when deciding which political
party to vote. It is a fundamental module more especially in a Democratic country where every
body decides what to go for and when. The seventh respondent indicated that it is important
because students will not take field of study because of friends but they will have to make their
own choice. The eighth respondent pointed out that most of the students appear to be involved
in different juveniles because they can not make their own decisions but their friends make
decisions on their behalf. If there is a module, every student will have knowledge about decision
making. The ninth respondent showed that this could also help students on how to spend their
funds. They would make worthwhile decisions on the use of money before they use it. The tenth
respondent indicated that this module will add problem- solving skills. If you do not have
problem solving skills you quickly jump to final decision which might not be acceptable one.
The eleventh respondent pointed out that the introduction of decision making model is an ideal
which will help most of the students. Students happen to take courses without making a clear
decision. Students find themselves in protests without decision making as long as some
individuals would have made decision. The twelfth respondent showed that the introduction of
decision making module is a good idea. This would help students to make worthwhile decision
when they have problems rather than resorting on protests. This would help us because
students are killing one another for poor decision making. The thirteenth responded indicated
that this module is significant to all students in Higher Institution of learning so that they can
make worthwhile decision that would benefit both students and their institutions. The
fourteenth respondent showed that the introduction of this module would contribute much
towards the decision making of students. Students would get knowledge that would help them
in the decision making.
The responses to the question indicated that the respondents seem to appreciate the
introduction of the Decision Making Module in Higher Institutions of learning. They indicated
that this will provide them with adequate knowledge for solving their problems. The
Institutions of Higher learning appear to be overwhelmed by predicaments which are not
insurmountable if adequate knowledge for decision making is acquired.
How can you avoid biased decision making
The first respondent indicated that you can avoid biased decision making by acquiring adequate
knowledge about decision making. Do not hurry when you make a decision. The second
respondent pointed out that you have to read the minds of other people when you make
decision for balancing your interest with the interest of other people. The third respondent
showed that do not take side when you make decision or have an interest to another party. The
fourth respondent indicated that you have to think critically about the problem before making
a decision. Make sure that no party should suffer after your decision. The fifth respondent
pointed out that self knowledge is significant when you make a decision because you would
make a decision which is none of your concern or business. The decision you make should not
serve your interest only. The sixth respondent pointed out that you have to redefine the
problem once more before you make decision. Avoid relating the problem with the previous
problem where it once happened. The seventh respondent indicated that do not be influenced
by bad friends when you make decision. The eighth respondent showed that you can avoid