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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 9, No. 1

Publication Date: January 25, 2022

DOI:10.14738/assrj.91.11469. Christian, C. S., Fraser, R., Herbert, B. S., & Scott, C. (2022). Training of Small Farmers and Minority Agroforestry Landowners in

Southeastern U.S. – an Evolving Model. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 9(1). 359-375.

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Training of Small Farmers and Minority Agroforestry

Landowners in Southeastern U.S. – an Evolving Model

Colmore S. Christian

Professor

Forestry, Ecology and Wildlife Program

Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762

Rory Fraser

Professor (retired)

Forestry, Ecology and Wildlife Program

Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762

Berneece S. Herbert

Associate Professor & Chair

bUrban and Regional Planning Department

Jackson State University, Jackson, MS 39201

Chelsea Scott

Consultant/Technician - InSTEP Project

Forestry, Ecology and Wildlife Program

Alabama A&M University, Normal, AL 35762

ABSTRACT

Traditionally, extension activities are aimed at the transferal of knowledge from

professionals to small-farmers and landowners. This process is supported by the

Forestry Extension Model (FEM), which posits that professionals know what small- farmers and landowners need to learn, are the most credible source of land

management information, and that small-farmers’/landowners’ education leads to

sustainable land management practices. Although recent studies have supported a

shift to peer-to-peer landowner education, there is still a need for initial

professional-to-small-farmer/landowner training. Many underserved landowners

lack forestry knowledge and practice and are usually unfamiliar with the available

federal and state programs and resources. Therefore, they would require training

before mentoring fellow small-farmers/landowners and gaining access to available

resources. This paper, based in part on the results of a questionnaire survey and

small-famers/landowners training initiatives, outlines elements of an evolving

‘landowners training model’ – a model where aspects of the FEM have been applied

in a setting conducive to peer-to-peer mentoring.

Keywords: agroforestry, minority landowners, small farmers, Southeastern U.S, training,

underserved landowners.

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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 9, Issue 1, January-2022

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

INTRODUCTION

There has been a continuous decrease in the land acreages owned by minorities, particularly

among the African American population, during the last half-century (Christian, Fraser & Diop,

2013a; Asare-Baah, Zabawa & Findlay, 2018). Several factors have contributed to this land loss

trend. These include a lack of knowledge and awareness among underserved minority

landowners (Christian et al., 2013a; Christian et al., 2013b; Asare-Baah et al., 2018), challenges

associated with the low level of income and profitability realized from the land, lack of

information about alternative land management strategies, unfair legal maneuvering and social

injustices (Reid, 2003), and the fact that historically, minority landowners have not had access

to professional technical assistance and guidance in respect of participation in government

landowner assistance programs (Dwivedi, Arundhati & Schelhas, 2016). The general lack of

guidance concerning heir property and the absence of estate and forest management plans

among members of this socially disadvantaged group (Thomas, Pennick & Gray, 2004) were

also contributing factors.

Consequently, the enhancement of the knowledge base, the training and skill development of

underserved minority agroforestry landowners and small-farmers are perceived to be among

the possible tools for reducing the land loss rate among minorities. This paper outlines the

strategies used and the impact of an innovative landowner training model introduced in the

Southeastern United States, explicitly targeted at underserved, minority agroforestry

landowners and small farmers.

The literature suggests that there are differences between children and adult learning and

education. Consequently, the assumptions about adult learners and those about child learners

are different(Machynska & Bioko, 2020). Adults are generally perceived to be “more motivated,

pragmatic, self-directed, and task-oriented than pre-adults” (Beder & Darkenwald, 1982:142).

Adult learners need learning to be meaningful, have prior experiences that are a rich resource,

are centered on problems, and are motivated to learn, often because they are at a transition

point in their lives or performing a task (Kerka, 2002). Against this background, teachers and

facilitators teach adults differently from children and adolescents (Beder & Darkenwald, 1982).

The training and sensitization of underserved minority landowners and small farmers in

agricultural and agroforestry practices have been challenging. Many minorities and small

farmers are unaware of the resources available to them for the sustainable and profitable

management of their lands (Hughes et al., 2005; Measells et al. 2005; Asare-Baah et al., 2018).

The majority of these landowners/farmers fall under the USDA’s definition of underserved

producers. This category encompasses limited resource farmers or ranchers, beginning

farmers or beginning ranchers, and socially disadvantaged farmers or ranchers (Christian et al.,

2013b).

A study conducted in the Southeastern United States between 2002 and 2003 revealed that

75% of landowners in Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee were ‘underserved’

(Measells et al., 2005). In that study, a landowner was deemed ‘underserved’ based on their

use of a professional forester’s services, information previously attained relating to forestry,

membership in a forestry-related organization, and participation in a forestry-related

educational program (Measells et al., 2005). Other studies found that most minority farmers

do not consider themselves eligible for many available programs (Odeh & Okpebholo, 2013;

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Christian, C. S., Fraser, R., Herbert, B. S., & Scott, C. (2022). Training of Small Farmers and Minority Agroforestry Landowners in Southeastern U.S.

– an Evolving Model. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 9(1). 359-375.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.91.11469

Asare-Baah et al., 2018). Odeh and Okpebholo (2013) also discovered that many farmers, 87%

of respondents, did not consider themselves eligible for many federal and state funded

assistance programs because of the label ‘socially disadvantaged farmer or rancher’. While this

term applies to a member of a group that has been subject to racial or ethnic prejudices because

of their identity as members of that group, in the survey, many respondents misidentified the

term to be synonymous with a disability, poverty and relying on government assistance.

The apparent misunderstandings and misconceptions among small farmers and minority

agroforestry landowners suggest that before landowner/farmer training begins, target

demographic groups’ problems and issues must be identified, thus allowing their concerns to

be addressed in the proposed training.

THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR ADULT TRAINING

Based on adult learners’ characteristics and learning styles, training workshops structured on

the theories of Andragogy, Project-Based Learning, or Transformative Learning

Theory/Constructivism should provide the required elements for active adult learning. Each

of these theories is learner-centered, considers the differences in learning styles, and addresses

the dissimilarity in teaching adults versus teaching children.

The Andragogy theory examines the differences between adult and child learners and focuses

on the needs of the adult learner (Ota et al., 2006). The authors identify six critical assumptions

concerning adult learning made by this theory:

1. Adults need to know why they are learning;

2. Adults are in control of their lives and desire to be seen as capable and therefore must

be allowed to develop their self-directed learning skills;

3. Different life experiences create a greater need for individualized teaching techniques

that incorporate those experiences;

4. The ability to apply learned information to their current situation;

5. The real-life application of knowledge learned;

6. Internal and external motivators.

Workshops can address these assumptions and provide the ideal environment for adult

learning by including a combination of learning strategies, including lectures, problem-based

learning, case studies, educational games, role-playing, and open discussions (Ota et al., 2006;

University of Washington, 2012).

Project-based learning theory calls for the in-depth discussion and study of a topic that the

learner sees as worthy (Grant, 2002). This gives the learner more control over what they learn,

which leads to maintained interest and more responsibility for their learning (Grant, 2002).

Control over what is learned also allows adult learners to easily incorporate prior knowledge

and experience into the learning process (Helle, Tynjala, & Olkinutora, 2006). Participants’

control can be addressed by allowing the topics explored at workshops to be chosen by

workshop attendees. Presenting information that landowners want to learn about or already

have some experience in will encourage participants to be more invested in learning and

applying new knowledge to their current situation. Project-based learning begins with a

question or problem and can go on for an extended period. Project-based learning is learning

by doing and concludes with an end product (Helle et al., 2006). This theory states that