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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol. 8, No. 5

Publication Date: May 25, 2021

DOI:10.14738/assrj.85.10064.

Ashibende, H., Mwangi, S. W., & Ngetich, K. (2021). Assessing Congregants Perception of Vulnerability of Church Buildings to

Security Threats in Nairobi County, Kenya. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 8(5). 213-228.

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

Assessing Congregants Perception of Vulnerability of Church

Buildings to Security Threats in Nairobi County, Kenya

Hudson Ashibende

Department of Peace Security and Social Sciences, Egerton University, Kenya

Samson Wokabi Mwangi

Department of Peace Security and Social Sciences, Egerton University, Kenya

Kibet Ngetich

Department of Peace Security and Social Sciences, Egerton University, Kenya

ABSTRACT

This paper uses data collected for an MA Thesis on Assessing Congregants’

perception of Vulnerability of Church Buildings to security threats in Nairobi

County, Kenya. The study has been necessitated by increased cases of targeted

criminal attacks on congregants and church buildings in addition to increased

perceptions of congregants as soft targets of insecurity, more pertinently in Nairobi

County. The study will be guided by the following objectives; to investigate the

nature of perceived vulnerability against church buildings; to explore congregant’s

perceptions of what constitutes church buildings security and safety; to establish

congregant’s perceptions of their level of preparedness in case of a criminal attack

while in church buildings service; and to determine the congregant’s perceptions of

what they think should be done to secure church buildings in Nairobi County Kenya.

This study was grounded by two theories; Defensive Space Concept and Crime

Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED). This study adopted a cross- sectional survey design while Stratified random sampling technique was used to

pick all the main respondents. Questionnaires were used to collect data from 182

members of each church (main respondents). In addition, Key Informants (K.I)

guide was used to collect qualitative data from 8 K.I who include 4 Priests (1 from

each church), and 4 security guards (one from each church). Data was analyzed with

the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and results presented using

tables, bar and pie charts. The study results revealed that violent attacks against the

churches in Nairobi county are on the increase (72%) and that the violent attacks

against the churches in Nairobi county have inspired fear among church attendants

(68.1%). Further, results showed the gun attacks were the most prevalent in church

buildings (29.7%) closely followed by knife attacks (29.1%), explosive attacks

(20.3%), suicide bombs (13.2%). Further, the results have revealed that some

churches had employed various measures to counter violent attacks that included

amongst other measures employed full time trained security staff to manage such

incidents. Congregant’s perceptions on violent attacks against churches include;

Knife and explosive attacks during services, but which have prompted fears of

future gun or other terror attacks as is the case in other countries. According to the

study; main measure of church security and safety included the Perimeter Walls,

use of Surveillance cameras, use of Metal Detectors in church entrances, and heavy

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Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol. 8, Issue 5, May-2021

Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom

barriers in church entrance amongst other measures. As a policy measure, the study

recommended formulation of standard security and safety measures applicable to

all places of worship in Kenya that include; permanent security staff and armed

security in all places of worship.

Key Words: Vulnerability, Standard security and Safety measures, Perimeter wall

INTRODUCTION

Houses of worship; churches in particular represent a unique crime prevention challenge for

security practitioners because the worshipers consider the physical security of the churches as

outside their faith, and that God should protect them regardless of the situation (Roberts,

2014). Sadly, this has not been the case. For example, in 2012, six people were killed and four

injured in a shooting at a Sikh temple in Oak Creek, Wisconsin, and in 2008, two people were

killed and seven wounded at a Unitarian Church in Knoxville, Tennessee. In addition, every day,

across the United States, churches are victimized by criminal occurrences. Some incidents, such

as last year’s fatal shooting at the Tennessee Valley Unitarian Universalist Church in Knoxville,

Tennessee, are so tragic event, though represented only a small percentage of church-related

crime, but continue to spur debate among law enforcement officials, security practitioners and

spiritual leaders concerning how best to protect a house of worship.

According to Boyle (2004), Freedom of faith in a secular, democratic and multi-cultural society

is a basic right. All religious facilities must counter risks to extremism, crime and abuse in

workplaces at some stage in the current global climate. In major festivals – both for Christians

Christmas and Easter, in the Jewish calendar, in Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, and in other

holy days for Islam and major denominations – hundreds or thousands of people in the same

religious building engage in one day (Melton, 2011). Ellison & George (1994) stated that

religious facilities and associated communities form fundamental bonds in the structure of

society. Houses of cults are built as holy places for meeting, from communions, bar-mitzvahs

and marriages, to regular and weekly prayers that are able to accommodate conventional

ceremonies and rituals (Magida, 2006). Furthermore, Atkin (2002), noted that religious

organizations, which can allow members and non-members to participate, are increasingly

providing full and post-church education, social services and outreach initiatives.

The design of safe facilities must include their chosen users in an overall Protection Strategy,

considering the transparency of the most religious institutions and a variety of constituents,

staff and visitors using them (Molotch & McClain, 2003). Even the most sophisticated facility

can't thwart and recover from a security violation without an integrated strategy. Preventive

and constructive information would help both religious institutions and associated community

centers (Kshetri, 2010). In order to cope with increased global security issues, the ADL was at

the forefront of providing Jewish institutions with information. Feng, Wang & Li. (2014) stated

that any facility is the first step to developing an effective security program to recognize the

risks and recognize vulnerable situations. Integrating the architecture, technology use and

operations, as laid down by owner and facility manager policies and procedures, would provide

much more security than prayer alone to safeguard the holy places (Susskind & Susskind,

2015).

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Ashibende, H., Mwangi, S. W., & Ngetich, K. (2021). Assessing Congregants Perception of Vulnerability of Church Buildings to Security Threats in

Nairobi County, Kenya. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 8(5). 213-228.

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.85.10064

According to Gordon (2004) the vast majority of churches lack sufficient security measures in

case of an attack; this in effect has exposed them to risks and vulnerability of various types of

soft targets and the increased attacks against them. Sadly, Terrorist incidents in the Haymarket,

London on Friday 29th June 2007 and at Glasgow Airport on Saturday 30th June 2007 indicate

that terrorists continue to target such soft and also crowded targets; as they are usually

locations with limited protective security measures and therefore afford the potential for mass

fatalities and casualties. The reason soft targets are called soft is because they are difficult to

defend against terror attacks, if not impossible, and are easy targets for terrorists. Homeland

defense and security officials warn that soft targets are easily accessed by terrorists who blend

in with the crowd, and can cause maximum destruction.

Gordon (2004), further explains that Islamic State and Al Qaeda are increasingly mounting and

advocating for attacks of soft targets as a means of deterring Western assaults on their strong

holds, a strategy that is extending their reach of terrorism to hotels, cafes, supermarkets and

malls where Europeans and Americans once felt were safe. As a result, about 70 tragedies

between 1982 and 2015 were in soft target areas, mostly churches with crowds of people and

victims not armed and not prepared to defend themselves.

According to Dana (2021), enhanced safety has influenced both religious traditions and the

industry, government and transport sectors. Churches and churches of worship were also open

all night for those in distress or need, and for those who wanted to pray for convenience or for

unplanned periods of troubling, to give a traditional sort of sanctuary (Rainer & Rainer, 2008).

But extra protection has obliged worship houses to stay open from sunrise to sunset for daily

business hours and then locks the gate. Certain communities worldwide no longer see a

religious structure as a safe place outside the boundaries of abuse, vandalism and theft (Nolan

& Nolan, 2018). Religious icons were made from the most precious materials for centuries and

painted with respect and reverence with costly materials, fine metals and jewels. Today, Paine,

2012) stated that a congregation seldom views such items, normally locked behind thick

protective glass cases or secured behind them as in a museum. The other few sections are

normally cheap reproductions wherever possible.

Churches may also offer opportunities by taking into account possible easy money streams. "A

small tin box that has been attached to the wall for years kept donations to the poor (Zelizer,

2017). This old practice is known as the 'bad box' has given way to build protected mini-safés,

usually attached to the building and under permanent visual and video observation. They are

also related to costly security devices that surpass the value of the funds normally generated in

the poor box. Calder, A. (2005) noted that elimination of potential risks, however, by moving

and securing places where money and assets are kept, and increased monitoring can minimize

robbery and vandalism opportunities in unsupervised spaces.

Hirschman (2004) states that religious institutions are no longer respected by society or by the

communities around them, particularly as old ethnic zones emerge in American cities and

become the home of new waves of immigrants with their own religious practices and cultures.

As stated by Pena (2000), many religious organizations have removed, screened or sandwiched

their valuable stained glass windows between plastic protective sheets or created safety glass

which have a permanent effect on the play of light inside and around the structures. The

elegance and importance of glass are preserved and also acts as a protective feature. Moving