Strengthening the Institutional Corrections for Effective Rehabilitation in Kenya

Globally, Institutional Corrections continue to play a critical role in the rehabilitation of the offenders. It is estimated that there are more than 10.2 million offenders in prison including sentenced and pre-trial prisoners. Statistics also show that 144 out of every 100,000 people are in prison. Similarly, in the last fifteen years the estimated world prison has increased by 25-35% hence the need to strengthen institutional corrections for better rehabilitation. In Kenya, the total prison population is about 53,841. This includes the pretrial detainees and remand prisoners. Additionally, there are 92 Institutional Corrections in Kenya. However, the prison system struggles with overcrowding, poor governance, insufficient coordination with other criminal systems and inadequate resources. As a result, the institutions have become breeding grounds for recidivism. This paper examines the development of the prison system, the evolution of the challenges and abuse of human rights. It will also examine how institutions can be strengthened. The paper recommends the need for more research to unearth more innovative ways of dealing with the challenges. There is need for inbuilt mechanisms to ensure good governance and accountability, re-integration and allocation of resources. In essence, a multisectoral approach need to be adopted for sustainable solutions. Key Words; Strengthening, Institutional Corrections, Rehabilitation, Prison, Kenya. BACKGROUND According to the United Nations office on Drugs and Crime, at any one time more than 10 million people around the world are being held in prison, 1/3 of them in connection to crime. This reinforces the fact that institutional corrections need to be strengthened. In the United States of America, the prison population is estimated at two million, one hundred and twenty thousand and six hundred out of a population of 323.9 million people (U.S Census bureau 2016). It is one of the countries globally that has the highest number of prisoners at 655 per 100,000. Notably, In the US there are 4575 prison institutions, 3283 local jails, 1190 state confinement facilities and 102 federal confinement centres. This does not match the number of prisoners, equally the country battles with the challenge of overcrowding. In addition, the two states in the US, New York and Jersey have been working actively on reducing their prison population but the states are tied with Rwanda, the nation with the 7th highest incarceration rate. Rwanda incarcerates 434 per 100,000 because thousands are sentenced or awaiting trial in connection with the 1994 genocide that killed an estimated 800 million people (Human Rights Council, 2016) In England and Wales, the number of prisoners stand at 86,000. The UK prison is faced with the challenge of overcrowding, understaffed and illicit drugs. The report shows that since 2002, the prisons have been flooded with drugs of all kinds despite the fact that it is a criminal offence to smuggle drugs into the prison, illicit mobile phones are also available for a price and Birech, J. (2020). Strengthening the Institutional Corrections for Effective Rehabilitation in Kenya. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(1) 409-420. 410 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/assrj.71.6930. are used to arrange drug deliveries. The prison staff are also accused of being involved in drug smuggling. Between July 2010 and June 2011, around 630000 offenders were cautioned, convicted or released from custody. Around 170000, of these offenders committed a proven further offence within a year giving a one year reoffending rate of 26.9% (Ministry of Justice, England and Wales Statistics Bulletin, 2013). On the contrary, in Norway the prison conditions are more human as compared to other countries. It has about 4000 prisoners in a population of 5 million people at 75 per 100,000. Recidivist rates stand at 20% while in the US it stands at 76%. The country adopts a less punitive way, a 2007 report on recidivism released by the US department of Justice found that strict incarceration increases offender recidivism while facilities that incorporate cognitive behavioural programs rooted in social learning theory are the most effective way at keeping ex-offenders out of jail. Norway banned capital punishment in 1902, life sentences in 1981. The country focusses on rehabilitating the prisoners through education, job training and therapy. From 2007, the country focussed more on reintegration with a special emphasis on helping the inmates find housing and work with a steady income before they are even released. A survey of almost 60,000offenders in the Nordic countries – Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden show that Norway has the lowest overall reoffending rate. Within two years about 20% of all those released from correctional facilities reoffended and were convicted. In the other Nordic countries, the overall reoffending rate varies from 24% to 31% (Ragnar, K 2010). In Africa continent, before the introduction of colonialism, the traditional African communities had their own mechanisms of maintaining peace and order while ensuring that justice prevailed. They had their own local justice systems which were aimed at protecting the victim rather than punishing the offender. The goal was compensation rather than punishing, Bah, T. (2003). Important to note is the fact that the local justice systems were embedded in their unique cultural values and beliefs which the indigenous African societies really guarded. This was tailored to meet community needs and it varied accordingly. The prison system in Africa therefore was introduced after colonialism. Over time these institutions have grown, due to increase in population of prisoners they now face many challenges though they vary in the intensity. This include inadequate resources, poor governance, overcrowding and poor conditions within prisons; the failure to protect the rights of pre-trial detainees, women and children; the untapped potential of alternative sentencing; and the unfulfilled mandate of rehabilitation. The prisons have become breeding grounds for recidivism. On the other hand, in Kenya the prison system can be traced back to 1902 by the British East Africa Protectorate with the Enactment of East Africa Prisons regulations. This enactment saw the establishment of the prison in Kenya. It was not until independence when the Kenyan government began to focus on improving the conditions of prison. The reforms were strengthened with enactment of chapter 90 laws of Kenya which looks at legislation for the treatment of adult offenders and chapter 92 which saw the establishment of Borstal institutions in Kenya where young offenders are reformed. Borstal institutions offer vocational training in Carpentry, masonry, tailoring, painting, wiring besides formal education. Currently there are two borstal institutions in the country, the Shimo la Tewa in the Coastal region and Shikutsa in Kakamega. Notably, the prison system has grown since its inception from a population of 6559 to a population of about 53,841 prisoners. According to the prisons Act (Cap 90) the mandate of the prison is the containment and safe custody of the inmates, rehabilitation and reformation of Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal (ASSRJ) Vol.7, Issue 1 Jan-2020 Copyright © Society for Science and Education, United Kingdom 411 prisoners, facilitation of administration of justice, controlling and training of the offenders in Borstal institutions and corrective training centres and the provision of facilities for children aged between four years and below accompanying their mothers. Regrettably, the prison system struggles to live up to its expectations hence failing to fulfil its mandate due to immense challenges that face the institution. Indeed, the increasing rate in crime in Kenya means the rising number of prisoners and this causes overcrowding. The capacity of our prisons is only 20,000 prisoners but the current holding averages between 50,000-55,000 inmates, both convicted and those awaiting cases to be concluded. This results in overstretched physical facilities which puts pressure on stores and services leading to unhygienic conditions, and prisoners are not classified properly (Kimani, P. 2006). This also means that the inmates do not have enough space resulting in both physical, emotional and mental discomfort hence interfering with effective rehabilitation. Studies have shown that overcrowding not only has a negative effect on housing and the general maintenance cost but it also overstretches the programs in terms of the professional personnel and physical facilities. It also pushes up the cost of taking care of the prisoners and the Kenyan economy cannot sustain it (Musyoka2013). The institutions are faced with insufficient professionals who may not be able to deal with specific criminogenic needs of prisoners. The service does not have enough counsellors, criminologists, psychiatrists, and psychologists who are well qualified to address the special cases arising in prisons. (Kimani 2006, Omboto,2010). A study done by the Penal Reform international shows that the poor living conditions leads to a range of diseases such as Tuberculosis, HIV AIDS among others. Besides, the infiltration of illicit drugs to the institutions, radicalized minds has become an obstacle to effective implementation of rehabilitation programmes. The situation is worsened by the fact that the staff are poorly paid, poor living conditions especially the junior members of staff whose housing conditions are poor. They live in old houses, some share houses and this causes discontent and dissatisfaction (Kimani,2006, Omboto 2010). Corruption as a vice thrives in our prisons. Studies show that there are some staff members who are bribed so as to favour inmates in obtaining drugs and using their phones, this is not allowed. The offenders have been stealing money from the public using

are used to arrange drug deliveries. The prison staff are also accused of being involved in drug smuggling. Between July 2010 and June 2011, around 630000 offenders were cautioned, convicted or released from custody. Around 170000, of these offenders committed a proven further offence within a year giving a one year reoffending rate of 26.9% (Ministry of Justice, England and Wales Statistics Bulletin, 2013).
On the contrary, in Norway the prison conditions are more human as compared to other countries. It has about 4000 prisoners in a population of 5 million people at 75 per 100,000. Recidivist rates stand at 20% while in the US it stands at 76%. The country adopts a less punitive way, a 2007 report on recidivism released by the US department of Justice found that strict incarceration increases offender recidivism while facilities that incorporate cognitivebehavioural programs rooted in social learning theory are the most effective way at keeping ex-offenders out of jail. Norway banned capital punishment in 1902, life sentences in 1981. The country focusses on rehabilitating the prisoners through education, job training and therapy. From 2007, the country focussed more on reintegration with a special emphasis on helping the inmates find housing and work with a steady income before they are even released. A survey of almost 60,000offenders in the Nordic countries -Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden show that Norway has the lowest overall reoffending rate. Within two years about 20% of all those released from correctional facilities reoffended and were convicted. In the other Nordic countries, the overall reoffending rate varies from 24% to 31% (Ragnar, K 2010).
In Africa continent, before the introduction of colonialism, the traditional African communities had their own mechanisms of maintaining peace and order while ensuring that justice prevailed. They had their own local justice systems which were aimed at protecting the victim rather than punishing the offender. The goal was compensation rather than punishing, Bah, T. (2003). Important to note is the fact that the local justice systems were embedded in their unique cultural values and beliefs which the indigenous African societies really guarded. This was tailored to meet community needs and it varied accordingly.
The prison system in Africa therefore was introduced after colonialism. Over time these institutions have grown, due to increase in population of prisoners they now face many challenges though they vary in the intensity. This include inadequate resources, poor governance, overcrowding and poor conditions within prisons; the failure to protect the rights of pre-trial detainees, women and children; the untapped potential of alternative sentencing; and the unfulfilled mandate of rehabilitation. The prisons have become breeding grounds for recidivism.
On the other hand, in Kenya the prison system can be traced back to 1902 by the British East Africa Protectorate with the Enactment of East Africa Prisons regulations. This enactment saw the establishment of the prison in Kenya. It was not until independence when the Kenyan government began to focus on improving the conditions of prison. The reforms were strengthened with enactment of chapter 90 laws of Kenya which looks at legislation for the treatment of adult offenders and chapter 92 which saw the establishment of Borstal institutions in Kenya where young offenders are reformed. Borstal institutions offer vocational training in Carpentry, masonry, tailoring, painting, wiring besides formal education. Currently there are two borstal institutions in the country, the Shimo la Tewa in the Coastal region and Shikutsa in Kakamega.
Notably, the prison system has grown since its inception from a population of 6559 to a population of about 53,841 prisoners. According to the prisons Act (Cap 90) the mandate of the prison is the containment and safe custody of the inmates, rehabilitation and reformation of prisoners, facilitation of administration of justice, controlling and training of the offenders in Borstal institutions and corrective training centres and the provision of facilities for children aged between four years and below accompanying their mothers.
Regrettably, the prison system struggles to live up to its expectations hence failing to fulfil its mandate due to immense challenges that face the institution. Indeed, the increasing rate in crime in Kenya means the rising number of prisoners and this causes overcrowding. The capacity of our prisons is only 20,000 prisoners but the current holding averages between 50,000-55,000 inmates, both convicted and those awaiting cases to be concluded. This results in overstretched physical facilities which puts pressure on stores and services leading to unhygienic conditions, and prisoners are not classified properly (Kimani, P. 2006). This also means that the inmates do not have enough space resulting in both physical, emotional and mental discomfort hence interfering with effective rehabilitation.
Studies have shown that overcrowding not only has a negative effect on housing and the general maintenance cost but it also overstretches the programs in terms of the professional personnel and physical facilities. It also pushes up the cost of taking care of the prisoners and the Kenyan economy cannot sustain it (Musyoka2013). The institutions are faced with insufficient professionals who may not be able to deal with specific criminogenic needs of prisoners. The service does not have enough counsellors, criminologists, psychiatrists, and psychologists who are well qualified to address the special cases arising in prisons. (Kimani 2006, Omboto,2010. A study done by the Penal Reform international shows that the poor living conditions leads to a range of diseases such as Tuberculosis, HIV AIDS among others. Besides, the infiltration of illicit drugs to the institutions, radicalized minds has become an obstacle to effective implementation of rehabilitation programmes. The situation is worsened by the fact that the staff are poorly paid, poor living conditions especially the junior members of staff whose housing conditions are poor. They live in old houses, some share houses and this causes discontent and dissatisfaction (Kimani,2006, Omboto 2010. Corruption as a vice thrives in our prisons. Studies show that there are some staff members who are bribed so as to favour inmates in obtaining drugs and using their phones, this is not allowed. The offenders have been stealing money from the public using their phones (Omboto,2010(Omboto, , 2013. This is a sign of poor governance and accountability in the prison system.

RECIDIVISM LINKED TO POOR REHABILITATION OF THE OFFENDERS
Recidivism, in a criminal justice context can be defined as the reversion of an individual to criminal behaviour after he or she has been convicted. It also means relapsing back to criminal life after one leaves prison. It's usually thought of as falling back which reverses the progress and sometimes it's called backsliding. The rate of recidivism in the US is estimated to be 76.6%, in Kenya its about 50%. Studies show that recidivism in the US differ depending on the nature of crime, the likelihood of re arrest within three years for crimes related to drug and property is about 70% which is higher than that of western countries (Nagin, 2009).
Bureau of Justice Statistics studies have found high rates of recidivism among released prisoners. One study tracked 404,638 prisoners in 30 states in the US after their release in prison in 2005. The study found out that; Within three years, about two thirds (67.7%) of released prisoners were rearrested. It also found out that within five years of release, about three quarters (76.6%) of released prisoners were re -arrested. Of those prisoners who were re-arrested, more than half (56%) were re-arrested by end of first year. Property offenders were the most likely to be rearrested, with 82.1% of released property offenders arrested for a new crime compared with 76.9% of drug offenders and 71.3% of violent offenders (Durose, et all 2014). Studies have shown that recidivism is linked to poor rehabilitation in the sense that offenders who re -enter society face a variety of problems.
Rehabilitation means re-enabling or making fit again, it means preparing prisoners to re-join society as useful and law-abiding members of the wider community. It means that the time spent in incarceration should have a positive impact on the offender. It is believed that something positive should be accomplished during the period of incarceration that forms the basis of rehabilitation approach. This can be realized if thorough assessment is done before incarceration. Such include considering the nature of the offence, the offenders security risks, the offenders needs' such as counselling, whether offender has any problem such as alcohol dependency, offenders prior record, propensity towards violence, vulnerability to victimization by other inmates, the programs that are available in different institutions. Without looking at the needs of the offenders discreetly and the appropriate programmes in the respective institutions, it hampers rehabilitation resulting into reoffending. Coupled with inadequate resources and financial constraints, poor governance experienced in the institutions has led to high rates of recidivism. This result in tremendous costs in terms of public safety and money spent on re arrest and prosecution. It leads to devastating social costs to the community as well as personal cost to the offender. International research has shown consistently that absence of place of residence, material deprivations experienced by the returning prisoners and the role played by family facilitates recidivism (Baldry, 2006, Gideon, 2007. Additionally, (Graffam & Hardcastle, 2007) posits that absence of marketable skills predisposes many ex-offenders into committing other crimes because they struggle to re-enter the real world which includes hard work yet they do not have funds. Without the tools to build a successful life and with stress of trying to make ends meet, many prisoners resort to crime for survival means. The truth of the matter is that society expects them to provide for their families, if any, and to resume normal life immediately yet the ex-offender is still adjusting to a new environment. This leads to economic stress.
A critical look at rehabilitation programmes in prisons do not prepare offenders adequately for economic success upon release, this makes it difficult to survive in society. As mentioned earlier, the prisons should do thorough assessment on the offenders so that they are rehabilitated accordingly, but with resource constraints this becomes a challenge. The Kenya prisons should reemphasize on reintegration as part of the programmes.
Researchers also are emphasizing the importance of how offenders view themselves and their life chances and how cognitive transformations of ex-prisoners may shape their desistance. In other words, ex-prisoners may reframe how they think about their offending and what they want for their future. Maruna (2001) argues that "ex-offenders need to develop a coherent, prosocial identity for themselves" in which they make sense of their criminal pasts in a way that allows a "reformed" future. Those who adopt such a narrative are more likely to desist from offending, whereas those who adopt a "condemnation script" are much more likely to continue to offend. Those who continue to offend view their lives as unchangeable and themselves as lacking any personal efficacy to change (Maruna, 2001).
Similarly, Giordano et al. (2002) expand beyond "hooks for change," such as employment and marriage, emphasize the need for openness to change, the ability to reflect and envision an appealing conventional self, and, finally, a change in the way the person views a deviant lifestyle. They argue that being open to change is insufficient, but it is a minimal starting point, and a "solid replacement self" may be the most important piece in long-term behaviour change Sampson (2003) also emphasize the role of human agency and routine activities and the importance of looking at societal expectations. The implication here is that the offender has the capacity to change the attitude and it must be purposeful hence a radical paradigm shift is necessary for a changed attitude to be realized. This therefore means the change in attitude should not be minimized but it should be encouraged and upheld.
The Society, to some extent, is to blame in the sense that once a person commits a crime the Society labels the person a criminal especially if the offender comes from a poor and less privileged background. Once crime is reported, the ex-convict becomes the first suspect. The person relapses back to crime because the society pushes them and they view themselves as social misfits. Lack of acceptance from society-looks like he has not changed''. This is worsened by the fact that community support structures are not adequate and lacks the capacity to offer reintegration and acceptance after the offenders are released. Similarly, the effects of harsh and long prison sentences have negative effects on prisoners especially first offenders. Prison is a school for criminals and those who are incarcerated become more sophisticated and more entrenched criminals, they become more hardened in crime by the time of release. Research has shown that imprisonment weakens ties to conventional institutions and disrupts family life hence impeding reintegration as the family plays a major role in helping the offender with emotional and material support during and after incarceration ( Christian,2005) Besides, longer prison sentences have a negative impact, the social bonds become weak. This include interpersonal, familial, work place and economic relationships. Weakened social bonds are likely to increase an offender's propensity to commit new crime after release. It also makes adjustment to society more problematic, it is not easy to obtain employment, offenders become alienated from their families and the community. According to (Gideon, 2007) low quality relationships between the offender and the family leads to conflicts which ultimately results in their reoffending behaviours. Due to ineffective rehabilitation they are not able to acquire communication skills that help in interacting with others and in getting meaningful employment outside the prison. Prisoners live in an environment that does not conform to the outside world. This causes ex-offenders to deal with unique conflicts due to low self -esteem from feelings stemming from lagging behind socially, emotionally, financially, alienation, depression, anxiety and anger. The prison way of life contributes to behaviour that supports lack of initiative, limited responsibility, lack of motivation to work. They are more accustomed to lying around not doing much. The prison environment is different from the mainstream society, upon the release of the offenders they struggle to cope, (Davis et al 2012).
Bonta (2007) points out the three principles that are at the core of effective intervention, the risk principle, need and responsive. The risk principle intimates the level of service must be matched to the risk level (low risk offenders receive minimal supervision while high risk receives intensive supervision. The need principle targets the problematic needs that are related to offending (criminogenic needs). On the other hand, the responsivity principle calls for providing cognitive behavioural treatment and tailoring the interventions to try and meet the needs of the community. The implication here is that need assessment should be done on the offenders before release.
The exit strategy for the prisoners is not emphasized in the sense that the discharge boards in Kenyan prisons are not effective in discharging inmates. They do not have the capacity to carry out their mandate effectively due to resource constraints to facilitate re-entry and reintegration into the community. The offenders are engaged in the prison work until they reach their Early Possible Date of discharge (E.P.D). They are only given transport and there are no follow up measures to find out whether the ex-offender is reintegrated into the community or not. The re-entry programmes should be put in place and ensure that they are strengthened by the probation and after care services (Owino, 2015).
In order to deal with the increasing rate of recidivistic behaviour in Kenya, the rehabilitation programmes should be strengthened. As mentioned earlier, the needs of the released inmates should be identified, such as identifying prisoners at risk for recidivistic behaviours and develop appropriate service plan for them. The diversity of the prison population and their unique needs must be considered.
Secondly, effective and intensive parole supervision should be provided, case management and monitoring after release should be strengthened. As mentioned earlier, offenders often face a lot of challenges after release, a place to live, a job, a drug free environment, reuniting with family members and rebuilding one's life. Efforts to reduce recidivism require attention to the specific and changing circumstances of former offenders and need to provide access to services that can address them. An effective process of offender reintegration is important for offender rehabilitation to be realized (Davis et al 2012) The government of Kenya should consider providing the Ex-offenders with soft loans to start small businesses so that they do not have to relapse back to crime. This can be done by encouraging them to join the self-help groups within their communities which can in turn guarantee the ex-offenders to take the loan. This initiative will not only make them productive but they will find a support system. In addition, provide linkages to treatment programs outside of prison for released inmates. The need for treatment for substance abuse and mental illness continues even after prison. When the offender returns to a neighbourhood associated with pre-incarceration drug use places the possibility of a relapse in to drug use is high (Volkow 2006). Notably, released inmates who are at risk for readdiction increases the likelihood of involvement in criminal activity. Effective linkages to treatment programmes outside prison are vital for successful re-entry of prisoners.

WAYS OF STRENGTHENING INSTITUTIONAL CORRECTIONS.
Since independence, the Kenya government has continuously made efforts to improve the conditions in prisons through various reforms. However, it is noted that society is not static and the government should keep at the pace of growth. The Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of the Offenders covers a range of issues such as accommodation, personal hygiene, clothing, beddings, food, medical services, discipline and punishment, complaint procedures, contact with the outside world, religion, personal property, staff selection, training and supervision among others. The rules take into consideration the wellbeing of the offender. Additionally, International Human Rights Law requires that the states maintain adequate prison conditions and provide good services to the offenders (UN 1987).
Admittedly, there is good progress made by the prisons in Kenya but for successful application of these rules, the administration of the prison should be more committed. Secondly, the prison staff should carry out their work effectively and thirdly the prisoners should be aware of their rights. Without an educated staff and the education of prison population, the application of the rules will not be effective. This, however, can be strengthened through the following; The government should allocate adequate resources to the prisons. The budgetary allocations to the prisons should be increased to cater for physical facilities and expansion of rehabilitation programmes to meet the needs of the ex-offenders. The institutions will be able to buy the necessary equipment for training prisoners and providing vocational training hence helping them to reintegrate easily in to the community. The security concerns at the prison should be addressed by equipping the prison staff with the necessary equipment. This will curtail notorious and unnecessary escape by hard core criminals from the prison who pose significant risk to society. The government of Kenya should do more to improve the working conditions of the staff. The housing should be improved and generally the terms of service should be improved. This will motivate the staff and this will have a positive impact on rehabilitation of the offenders.
On the other hand, they should put in place proper mechanisms to ensure that they recruit relevant personnel who are competent and skilled. The scheme should be improved to provide for professional training and refresher courses which are necessary for nurturing relevant skills and disciplines such as counselling, psychology, psychiatry and human rights. This will help prison staff to cope with the dynamic criminal behaviour of prisoners and patterns of offenders hence helping them to better understand their roles and duties within a human rights perspective. It will also address the harsh treatment of prisoners experienced in Kenyan prisons as well as facilitate prisoner-warden relationships which will aid in prisoner's voluntary involvement in rehabilitation programmes.
The community-based Corrections should be strengthened such as probation and parole. Probation is one of the most popular form of community corrections in Kenya. It is a sentence where the offender other than being incarcerated is retained in the community under the observation of a probation officer and is required to abide by the certain rules and conditions so as not to find their way back to prison. It is a court ordered period of correctional supervision in the community. It is suspension of incarcerated sentence, which can be imposed if the offender fails to complete the probation term successfully. It's one of the common forms of community corrections and it's sometimes seen as a diversion of the jail term. It has three fundamental objectives: To assisting courts in matters pertaining sentence, secondly, to promote community protection by supervising and monitoring activities of the persons under probation and thirdly, to promote the welfare of the offenders by ensuring they receive appropriate rehabilitation services However, the general public have negative perceptions towards the community corrections and they need to be educated on the benefits. The general public is not well versed with the idea of probation since it's seen to be a soft way of punishing criminals, permissive and uncaring about crime victims, blindly advocates for a rehabilitative idea while ignoring the reality of violent criminals. Notably allowing minor offenders to remain in the community under probation supervision to prove that they can live a law-abiding life offers many benefits to them as well as their community. The general public idea that the probation sentence is getting away with the offence is a false notion since the probationer receives a prison sentence upon conviction which is suspended upon the period of proving that they can live a lawabiding life. Therefore, the sentence hangs over the probationer's head. In addition, it requires the offender to work, submit to the treatment schedules, as well as engage in other orderly things that may harden the offender. On the other hand, less criminally involved offenders prefer a probation sentence so that they can retain their jobs and maintain connection with their families and communities of the probationers. In the event of failing to live up to the conditions of the probation the prison sentence is typically imposed. There is need to provide necessary funding so as to provide intensive programming for those on probation, Mackenzie (2006).
As pointed out, the community corrections have many benefits, for example, the probation costs cannot be compared to imprisonment cost/prison costs and therefore saving the tax payers money. In some jurisdiction they require probationers to pay for their supervision therefore lessening the burden to tax payers. However, as much as economic considerations are important in policy making, they should not be the primary concern of corrections. It should be pointed out that protecting community is the only solution to those who pose less significant risk to public safety.
Secondly, Probationers who are employed continue to stay in their communities while paying taxes. In cases where the offenders were unemployed at the time of conviction, they may obtain training as well as assistance in getting a job. As a result, offenders obtain stake in conformity to that employment offers. It allows offenders where applicable to pay fines, meet court costs as well as restitution to the victims. In case of married offenders, community supervision maintains family integrity, whereas imprisonment will lead to its disruption and eventually its disintegration. It prevents simple offenders from graduating and further becoming embedded in criminal lifestyle by being exposed to chronic offenders in prison. This is further complicated by further label which is ex-prison which further complicates their attempts reintegrate themselves into free society.
From the foregoing discussion, probation can be made more effective by strengthening the programs. For example, increased use of information to make decisions, providing direct, clear, and timely feedback with the goal of improving methods for implementing programs, strategies, and interventions. Secondly, careful classification and risk assessment using valid and reliable instruments to ensure that probationers at different risk levels receive the appropriate interventions and programs. Thirdly, the increased use of evidence-based corrections so programs with demonstrated effectiveness are provided, particularly programs with therapeutic programming and human service components. Finally, new and innovative programs such as specialized courts, day fines, and community service focusing on the needs of particular types of offenders and moving away from a focus control and punishments and focussing more on rehabilitation (Clear 2007).
Indeed, jurisdictions have begun to rethink probation. Many in the United States have argued that there is no need to incarcerate such a large percentage of the population. There are alternatives, and other developed countries have successfully used them instead of incarcerating such large proportions of the population. People continue to worry about what high incarceration rates have done to inner-city communities and minority populations. Offenders released from prison face enormous problems during re-entry. Probation eliminates some of these problems if more resources is spent on treatment, (Mackenzie, 2006). In my view, this is one of the good practices that can be strengthened by the Kenyan Jurisdiction.
As part of strengthening community corrections, the probation officers' welfare should be improved. Supervising criminal offenders is not an easy task, they require necessary tools and support to do their job. The work load is too much, handling case management files, doing correctional counselling among other duties. This leads to burn out among the officers and this affects effective rehabilitation. According to Slate et al (2003) the probation officers are faced by the following challenges among others, poor salaries, poor promotion, excessive paper work, lack of resources, large caseloads, general frustrations and inadequacies of criminal justice system. As a result, the officers may end up becoming psychologically withdrawn thus affecting the effectiveness of the probation. There is also high rate of absenteeism and employees turn over but then it should be approached from organizational perspective. This requires participatory management strategy to be instituted such that each and every individual feels part of the decision making process resulting into a feeling of being valued and empowered. Participatory management is also termed as work place democracy, it leads to a happier and more productive work force.
The Community Service Order Act facilitates rehabilitation, therefore a lot of awareness should be created on the existing community structures and services provided by the government as per the Community Service Order (CSO) Act which allows the offenders to engage in public work such as construction or maintenance of public roads or roads of access, afforestation works, environment conservation, projects for water conservation, management or distribution and supply, maintenance work in public schools, hospitals and other public social service amenities, the nature or type of public work shall in any particular case be determined by the court in consultation with the Community Service Orders Committee. This not only equips the offender with survival skills outside the prison but also deals with the problem of idleness.
Indeed, offering effective training and education to the offenders plays a role in empowering them. Studies show that offenders who receive education in prison are less likely to commit crime as compared to those who do not ( Nasiloli, 2013) . The study revealed that the offenders who did vocational training were economically empowered and useful to society. Besides, they are able to develop a sense of self-worth and often, for the first time, take pride in their work. They may develop positive work habits that can help them once they are released. Inmates may be able to use the job skills they acquired in prison to obtain meaningful employment later. The workshops therefore should be equipped with relevant machinery, the officers be equipped with relevant skills for effective training whilst the needs of the offenders are met. It goes without saying that the proper coordination between the police, judicial systems and the prison need to be strengthened. This will eliminate the dangers of having the wrong people being incarcerated while having those who commit crimes remain in the community. This creates bitterness and frustrations among those wrongfully convicted. This calls for high level of honesty and integrity on those involved.
Life skills programs are important for developing the inmate's ability to function properly in society. The programs should focus on helping the inmates to adapt to life outside prison. Life skills programs include a variety of topics such as money management, in which inmates learn about balancing personal budgets, paying rent, and shopping for necessities. Inmates can enrol in family development courses such as anger management, child-rearing practices, and resolving family conflicts. One of the challenges that face the ex-offenders is managing anger, a potential cause of recidivistic behaviours. Similarly, most inmates require job-seeking skills such as filling out application forms, developing a résumé, and interviewing.
Prison libraries play a role in stress management among the inmates. It not only provides a stress fee environment but it has potential to increase the inmates' knowledge through selfdevelopment without having to endure the rigors of a prison education. They can use the prison library for study or research on their own time. Prison libraries generally offer inmates reading materials that include fiction and nonfiction books, magazines, journals, and newspapers. In an environment where privacy is limited, an inmate can engage in a very private activity: reading. According to (Stevens, 1994) it gives the inmates an opportunity to escape from the harsh reality of confinement through the characters he or she reads about in novels Prison libraries generally restrict access only to materials or topics that threaten the safety of the facility. The inmates can use the libraries to educate themselves on the law and perhaps fight for their release. Those who become very familiar with the law are often called jailhouse lawyers , such inmates help other inmates fight for their release. Jailhouse lawyers are generally paid with commissary items, cash, or any other prison service that the client is able to provide (Silverman, 2001). The Kenyan institutional corrections therefore should equip their libraries as a way of enhancing effective rehabilitation.
Additionally, vocational education programs allow inmates to learn a trade or job skills under real work conditions, under the supervision of officers or other highly skilled inmates. They are able to develop a sense of self-worth and often, for the first time, take pride in their work. They may develop positive work habits that can help them once they are released. Besides, it helps them gain some form of employment which enhances independence hence reducing recidivism. Studies have shown that inmates who take vocational programs are less likely to recidivate (Wilson et al 2000). On the contrary, according to (Gerber & Fritsch, 2001) different types of vocational programs, and assignment to these programs depends on availability, need, and ability to pay. The implication here is that more opportunities need to be created by the Kenyan Jurisdiction and the facilitation of the inmates to practice the skills.
Recreational programs should be offered to the inmates. These programs give inmates opportunities to release tension that arises from the unhealthy nature of the prison environment and the monotony of prison life. Inmates should engage in activities such as weight lifting, jogging, exercising, football, music, drama, chess. Inmate teams can compete with teams outside prison in baseball, basketball, football, and other sports. Recreational activities can provide vigorous exercise and reduce the time inmates spend on threatening activities while incarcerated.
According to (Silverman, 2001), inmates are able to learn the rules and regulations of various sports. Recreational contests in prison allow inmates to interact with other inmates socially in the spirit of athletic competition. Recreational programs that focus on health and fitness can help inmates build self-esteem and healthy life habits that can reduce future criminal activity. The time needed to develop and maintain a physically fit lifestyle after release can minimize the amount of time spent pursuing criminal activities. This should be strengthened in the Kenyan prisons as well.

CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD
In conclusion therefore, effective rehabilitation calls for a concerted effort from all the stakeholders. The government through the prison system should allocate more resources to enable the sector carry out its mandate effectively. Partnerships should be strengthened, between the prisons and other bodies where they share ideas on emerging trends in crime and rehabilitation. The civil society and the community should play their role effectively, the community should be receptive and reintegrate the ex-offenders without discrimination. The willingness by the community will go a long way in strengthening community policing initiatives which is key in preventing crime in the community. The family on the other hand should take up its role of providing, guiding and mentoring their children. In summary, multisectoral approach need to be adopted for effective rehabilitation to be realized.