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European Journal of Applied Sciences – Vol. 12, No. 4
Publication Date: August 25, 2024
DOI:10.14738/aivp.124.17430.
Oboshenure, K. K., George, G. C., & Keme, P. (2024). Investigating Soil Instability and Subsidence Risks Using an Integrated ERT
and MASW Analysis. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(4). 310-326.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Investigating Soil Instability and Subsidence Risks Using an
Integrated ERT and MASW Analysis
Oboshenure, K. K.
Department of Physics, Niger Delta University,
Wilberforce Island Bayelsa State
George Godwin C
Department of Physics, Covenant University,
Ota Ogun State
Keme, P.
Department of Physics, Niger Delta University,
Wilberforce Island Bayelsa State
ABSTRACT
Subsidence is a major structural concern, particularly in deltaic areas with soft,
compressible soils. This study looks into the subsurface conditions at Niger Delta
University, Amassoma, using a combination of Electrical Resistivity Tomography
(ERT), Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW), and Standard Penetration
Tests. Analysis of five ERT profiles identified three stratigraphic layers having
resistivity values that ranged from 0.453 Ωm to 145 Ωm, indicating different soil
compositions and moisture levels. MASW measurements also confirmed these
findings, with shear wave velocities ranging from 207 m/s in the topmost layer
characterised with moisture to 824 m/s in the deepest probed layer. The
computed Standard Penetration Test (N-value) findings revealed a significant
variance in soil strength, with N-values ranging from 8.3 in the topmost layer to
459 in the deepest layer probed. This complex profile suggests that the softer
upper layer, which is insufficiently secure for normal foundations, overlies stiffer
layers. The study emphasises the importance of deep foundation techniques and
soil stabilisation in reducing subsidence risks and ensuring the structural
integrity of facilities. These findings provide critical insights into geotechnical
engineering techniques in deltaic regions, emphasising the significance of
thorough subsurface investigations in anticipating and dealing with structural
stability issues.
INTRODUCTION
Subsidence, or the progressive sinking of ground or buildings, poses substantial problems to
structural stability and lifespan, especially in deltaic areas like Nigeria's Niger Delta. Because
of its unique geographical and geological location, Niger Delta University in Amassoma,
Southern Ijaw, Bayelsa State, serves as an excellent case study for exploring these
geotechnical challenges [1, 2, 3, 4]. Deltaic environments are distinguished by soft,
compressible soils that are frequently wet with water and prone to subsidence under the
weight of erected structures [5, 6]. In these situations, typical foundation design approaches
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Oboshenure, K. K., George, G. C., & Keme, P. (2024). Investigating Soil Instability and Subsidence Risks Using an Integrated ERT and MASW
Analysis. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(4). 310-326.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.124.17430
frequently fail to offer long-term stability, necessitating in-depth subsurface investigations to
determine acceptable engineering solutions [7, 8, 9].
Recent research has demonstrated the efficiency of combining geophysical approaches such
as Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves
(MASW) in analysing subsurface conditions. ERT gives precise resistivity profiles that aid in
identifying different soil layers and their moisture content, whereas MASW monitors shear
wave velocities to determine soil stiffness [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26]. Despite the popularity of geotechnical studies in diverse infrastructure contexts,
not much research has focused on the combination of ERT and MASW in understanding
subsidence on university campuses in deltaic environments. This gap highlights the need for
targeted research that uses these integrated geophysical tools to better predict and manage
subsidence risks [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].
Furthermore, evaluating soil bearing capacity by Standard Penetration Tests (SPT) or N-value
measurements is critical for monitoring potential subsidence and building appropriate
foundations. The substantial variation in N-values across layers indicates a complicated
subsurface profile that may pose a challenge to typical foundation techniques [35, 36, 37, 38,
39].
The importance of this study resides not just in its applicability to Niger Delta University, but
also in its broader implications for structures in geologically equivalent places. This study
intends to help build more effective construction and mitigation measures by providing a
complete understanding of subsurface conditions and their impact on structure stability.
This study is also consistent with global efforts to gain insight and adapt to the geotechnical
challenges faced by climate change and rising sea levels, which can worsen subsidence issues
in coastal and deltaic locations. Thus, the findings of this study are predicted to have broad
impacts on urban planning, civil engineering, and environmental policy. This research
addresses a pressing need for extensive subsurface investigations utilising cutting-edge
geophysical techniques to advise safer and more sustainable building practices in susceptible
places such as the Niger Delta. The insights gathered here will assist bridge large gaps in the
literature and offer a platform for future study in this critical field of geotechnical engineering.
GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA
The study location Niger Delta University is in Amassoma, a town in the Southern Ijaw Local
Government area in Bayelsa State, Nigeria, and is part of the Niger Delta region, a huge
sedimentary basin recognized for its complex geology and geomorphological features [40].
This region is part of the wider Niger Delta Province, which includes one of the world's largest
deltas, produced by millions of years of sediment deposition. The Niger Delta is underlain by a
thick succession of Tertiary to Quaternary sedimentary rocks, primarily clastic deposits
deposited in a fluvio-deltaic setting [41]. The stratigraphy of the Niger Delta is often classified
into three formations: Akata, Agbada, and Benin. The Akata Formation, the deepest of the
three, is mostly made up of marine shales and is notable for its over pressured shale bodies.
Above the Akata Formation is the Agbada Formation, which is made up of a diverse mix of
sands and shales deposited in both marine and river environments [42, 43], this formation is
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critical to comprehending the petroleum system in addition to the geotechnical features that
are vital to construction. The topmost formation, the Benin Formation, is composed primarily
of continental sands with some shale intercalations and was formed in a river to deltaic
environment. The Benin Formation is where much of the Niger Delta's urban and
infrastructure development is concentrated [44, 45]. The depositional history and lithology of
the Benin Formation influence the geotechnical properties of Amassoma's soils. The region is
distinguished by soft, compressible soils with high moisture content, such as silts, clays, and
sandy clays, which present substantial obstacles to construction and urban development. The
high groundwater table and frequent flooding exacerbate geotechnical conditions,
compromising soil stability and building foundation integrity [46, 47, 48].
This study's inquiry into Amassoma's underlying conditions is especially important given the
region's complicated geological framework. Understanding the relationship between
lithological composition, soil qualities, and groundwater dynamics is critical for assessing
geotechnical risks associated with construction and developing mitigation solutions for
probable building collapses.
Fig 1: Map of Bayelsa state showing southern ijaw LGA.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Geophysical Investigation (Electrical Resistivity Imaging)
The use of integrated geophysical techniques such as 2-D Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI),
Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) and Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) could
provide useful information about the geotechnical properties of subsoil layers underlying a
proposed engineering site. [47]. This research was carried out around the Newsite Campus of
the Niger Delta University situated in a sinking building using the electrical resistivity imaging
(ERI) method and Multi-Channel Surface Wave (MASW) technique of seismic refraction. The
survey divided into 100 m by 60 m square grid pattern and Pasi Earth Resistivity metre
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Oboshenure, K. K., George, G. C., & Keme, P. (2024). Investigating Soil Instability and Subsidence Risks Using an Integrated ERT and MASW
Analysis. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(4). 310-326.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.124.17430
(Terrameter Model 16-GL) was used measuring the resistivity variation of the subsurface.
Resistivity measurements were carried out along ten (10) established equally spaced
resistivity profiles which were 10m apart. Twenty-one (21) geo-referenced electrode stations
were occupied on each profile line at 5 m station interval using Wenner-Schlumberger
electrode configuration with an electrode separation distance which ranges from a = 5 m to a
= 30 m. Wenner array was employed for Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI) with spacing
between adjacent electrodes represented by ‘a’, all the possible measurement made with
Wenner array is of electrode spacing of “na” where n=1, 2....5 and ‘a’=5 m. The traverse line
varies due to the availability of space within the study area. The apparent resistivity values for
each traverse were collated in a format that is acceptable by the RES2DINV inversion
computer code used in the inversion of the 2D data. The data obtained were processed and
inverted using the RES2DINV software with a least inversion algorithm using a regularization
technique [48]
Fig 2: ERI 2D Square Grid layout
Geotechnical Investigation (Seismic Refraction)
Fig 3: Seismic refraction Field Survey Geophone Layout.
In seismic surveying, seismic waves are generated by a controlled source, propagate through
the subsurface and return to the surface after refraction and reflection at geological
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boundaries or travelling along free interface within the subsurface. Geophones arranged
linearly along the surface are used to record the arrival times of the waves at different ranges
from the source ([49], [50], [51]). These travel times are converted into depth and, hence, the
distribution subsurface geological interfaces may be mapped. The field measurement of
seismic refraction profiles was acquired using the ABEM Terraloc MK6 (seismograph) with 12
channels, 4.5 Hz vertical geophones with the profile length ranging from 0 m - 95 m. The
trigger geophone is located at the origin 0 m which is used to transmit analog electrical
impulses from geophones to seismograph, the separation distance for each geophone
(receiver geophones) ranges from 20 m - 75 m (20 m, 25 m, 30 m, 35 m, 40 m, 45 m, 50 m, 55
m, 60 m, 65 m, 70 m and 75 m) using reverse and forward offset of 5 m apart. The receiver
geophones are electrochemical transducers that convert ground motion into an electrical
analog signal, these geophones are also used to detect arrival times (compression or P-waves)
emanating from the subsurface features. Energy Source (hammer and metallic plate) was
armed at the origin (0 m) which is the first shot point, the value obtained from the first shot
point is displayed on the seismograph, which is the unit of recording the information detected
from the subsurface by the receiver geophone. The second shot point was armed at 20 m and
was recorded, the third shot point was armed at 25 m and was recorded, this sounding
continues to 95 m respectively. A total of three (3) shot points were acquired and was
recorded on the seismograph for the first profile, second and third profiles respectively.
MASW data were acquired along profiles 1, 2 and 3. The geophone spacing of 5 m was used
for better horizontal resolution. The MASW data was processed using the Easy Refract
software. Interpreted result is displayed in result section of this work.
Fig 4: Schematic diagram of field procedure during data acquisition
Computation of N-value
The N-value, which is a primary factor used in expressing how soft or hard a formation is and
can support foundation bearing capacity; was computed using the [52] relations.
VS = 99.5N
0.345 (1)
Where VS
is the shearwave velocity and N is the computed N-value
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Oboshenure, K. K., George, G. C., & Keme, P. (2024). Investigating Soil Instability and Subsidence Risks Using an Integrated ERT and MASW
Analysis. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(4). 310-326.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.124.17430
RESULTS
Presentation of ERT Results
The First Profile covered a 100-meter spread and probed a depth of 19.8 metres, with
resistivity values that ranged from 1.93 to 38.6 Ωm. The resistivity structure consists of three
layers: 1.93 to 4.54 Ωm, 6.97 to 16.4 Ωm, and 25.2 to 38.6 Ωm. Figure 5 depicts the 2D
resistivity section along Traverse 1.
Fig 5: Traverse 1: 2D-Electrical resistivity imaging at NDU Newsite 0m
The second profile covered 100 metres and reached a depth of 19.8 metres. Resistivity values
ranged from 5.58 to 71.7 Ωm. The resistivity structure is separated into three layers: the first
layer (5.58-11.6 Ωm), the second layer (16.7-34.6 Ωm), and the third layer (49.8-71.7 Ωm).
Figure 6 shows the 2D resistivity section along Traverse 2.
Fig 6: Traverse 2: 2D-Electrical resistivity imaging at NDU Newsite 25m
The third profile covered 100 metres and reached a depth of 19.8 metres. Resistivity values
ranged from 7.84 to 68.1 Ωm. The resistivity structure is separated into three layers: 7.84-
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14.5 Ωm, 19.8-36.7 Ωm, and 50.0-68.1 Ωm. Figure 7 depicts the 2D resistivity section along
traverse 3.
Fig 7: Traverse 3: 2D-Electrical resistivity imaging at NDU Newsite 50m
In the fourth profile, a total spread of 100 m was measured and a depth of 19.8 m was
investigated with resistivity values ranging from 0.453 - 145 Ωm. Three separate resistivity
structures are delineated, with the first layer having resistivity values ranging from 0.453 -
2.35 Ωm, the second layer having resistivity values ranging from 5.36 - 27.8 Ωm, and the third
layer having resistivity values ranging from 63.4 - 145 Ωm. Figure 8 shows the 2D resistivity
section.
Fig 8: Traverse 4: 2D-Electrical resistivity imaging at NDU Newsite 75m
The Fifth Profile examined a total spread of 100 m and probed a depth of 19.8 m, with
resistivity values ranging from 6.61 to 46.9 Ωm. The resistivity structure is divided into three
layers: 6.61-11.6 Ωm for the first layer, 15.3-26.7 Ωm for the second layer, and 35.5-46.9 Ωm
for the third layer. Figure 9 shows the 2D resistivity section along traverse 5.
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Oboshenure, K. K., George, G. C., & Keme, P. (2024). Investigating Soil Instability and Subsidence Risks Using an Integrated ERT and MASW
Analysis. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(4). 310-326.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.124.17430
Fig 9: Traverse 5: 2D-Electrical resistivity imaging at NDU Newsite 100m.
MASW Result
Three Profiles Were Carried Out Using MASW:
The result of the Shear wave velocities of the first layer of the three profiles ranges from 207
m/s to 227 m/s (with a thickness of 1 m), that of the second layer ranges from 421 to 456 m/s
(with a thickness of averagely 7 m) and that of the third layer ranges from 720 m/s to 824
m/s (with a thickness of averagely 10 m). This quantitative interpreted result is displayed in
Table 1.
N-Value (N):
N-Value ranges from 6.3376 - 9.40457 for the topmost layer which indicates very loose
sediments, second layer values range from 2.70489 - 9.78445 and the third layer values vary
from 2.96250 - 10.77282. This quantitative interpreted result is also displayed in Table 1.
Fig 10: Profile 1: Sample of a picked first wave
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Fig 11: Profile 2. Sample of a picked first wave
Fig 12: Profile 3. Sample of a picked first wave
Fig 13: Phase Velocity vs Frequency Spectrum profile 1
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Oboshenure, K. K., George, G. C., & Keme, P. (2024). Investigating Soil Instability and Subsidence Risks Using an Integrated ERT and MASW
Analysis. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(4). 310-326.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.124.17430
Fig 14: Phase Velocity vs Frequency Spectrum profile 2
Fig 15: Phase Velocity vs Frequency Spectrum profile 3
Fig 16: Shear wave Velocity of profile
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Fig 17: Shear wave Velocity of profile 2
Fig 18: Shear wave Velocity of profile 3
Table 1: Result from Inversion for Foundation bearing capacity and shear wave velocity
Profile 1 Profile 2 Profile 3
L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3
Depth (m) 1 6.71 16.22 1 7.01 17.92 1 9 19.92
Thickness (m) 1 5.71 9.51 1 6.01 10.91 1 8 19.92
Vs (m/s) 215.89 421.01 719.92 207.06 434.52 749 226.78 456.34 824.66
N-Value 9.45 65.38 309.21 8.35 71.71 347.62 10.89 82.64 459.38
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Oboshenure, K. K., George, G. C., & Keme, P. (2024). Investigating Soil Instability and Subsidence Risks Using an Integrated ERT and MASW
Analysis. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(4). 310-326.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.124.17430
Table 2: N-value classes (modified after Bowles (1984)
Cohesive soil Cohesionless soil
N-value Description N-value Description
<4 Very soft 0-4 Very Loose
4-6 Soft 5-10 Loose
7-15 Medium 11-30 Medium
16-25 Stiff 31-50 Dense
<25 Hard <50 Very dense
Discussion
The geophysical and geotechnical investigations done at Niger Delta University, comprising
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves
(MASW), revealed detailed insights concerning subsurface conditions. These findings are very
essential to recognizing the geotechnical issues responsible for sinking structures on the
university campus.
Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) Analysis:
The ERT data identified three distinct resistivity layers across five profiles, indicating
significant lateral and vertical changes in soil composition. The uppermost layer has the
lowest resistivity values, indicating high moisture content and possibly organic materials or
clays, which are reputed for their poor load-bearing characteristics. For example, the first
profile showed resistivity as low as 1.93 Ωm, such materials under foundation can give rise to
differential settlement and subsidence when compress under load. The middle layers across
the profiles generally have resistivity values (ranging from 6.97 to 34.6 Ωm), suggesting a
transition to more compact soils, such as silty or sandy clays. These layers typically offer
better support than the uppermost layers, but pose risks of consolidation under persistent
loading. The third and deepest strata have the highest resistivity values (up to 145 Ωm),
indicating denser, more cemented substrates such as gravel or rock. These layers provide the
most solid foundation conditions, yet they are frequently inaccessible by normal building
foundations without specialised deep foundation techniques.
Multichannel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) Analysis:
The MASW results confirmed the stratigraphic profiles proposed by ERT, with shear wave
velocities rising with depth. The highest layer (207 to 227 m/s) corresponds to extremely soft
ground, which is compatible with the high moisture content indicated by low resistivity
values. Such soft soils are prone to seismic liquefaction during earthquakes and can compress
significantly under static loads, both of which are crucial for building stability. The middle
layers, which were with shear wave velocities between 421 and 456 m/s, indicate moderately
stiff soil characteristics that can support construction loads better but may still undergo
significant settlement over time, particularly under wet conditions or if inadequately
compacted. The deepest layers (720 to 824 m/s) imply very stiff to hard earth conditions,
which are appropriate for foundational support and correspond to the dense materials
suggested by the maximum resistivity.
Foundation Bearing Capacity (N-Value Analysis):
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The N-values provide a more accurate estimate of soil compaction and strength when
computed using [52] relations. The upper layer's N-values (8.3 to 11.00) indicate relatively
loose circumstances when compared to usual building norms. These numbers demonstrate
that, while the surface layer may support certain types of building, it is nevertheless subject to
compression and settling under severe loads. The second layer has much larger N-values (65–
82). The increase in N-values with depth corresponds to the denser material layers reported
in ERT and MASW investigations, implying a medium to highly compacted condition capable
of supporting considerable buildings without undue settling. The third layer, with N-values
ranging from 309 to 459, demonstrates exceptionally high soil compaction and strength,
indicating very stiff to hard ground conditions ideal for foundations that require maximum
stability.
Implications for Building Stability:
The combined results from ERT and MASW, enhanced by precise N-value measurements,
reveal a distinct strata of soil types at Niger Delta University. Despite its weakness, the upper
layer is reasonably compact and, with adequate engineering interventions, may support light
constructions. The middle and bottom layers offer great support, making them ideal for the
foundations of vital and heavy structures.
Given the possibility of subsidence indicated by the softer upper layer, it is recommended to
use deep foundation procedures that avoid the less stable soil and anchor in the denser, more
trustworthy layers identified by the higher N-values in the middle and lower levels. Soil
enhancement techniques like as pilings, stone columns, and deep mixing may be considered to
improve stability in regions where deep foundations are not practical.
This analysis emphasizes the importance of specialized foundation designs and proactive
geotechnical methods for mitigating probable infrastructure collapses in the Niger Delta's
difficult soils. Such strategies are critical for guaranteeing the long-term stability and safety of
university buildings and other infrastructure in subsidence-prone areas.
CONCLUSION
This study used Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), Multichannel Analysis of Surface
Waves (MASW), and Standard Penetration Tests (N-values) to conduct a thorough
geotechnical and geophysical analysis of the subsurface conditions at Niger Delta University
in Amassoma. The integrated technique successfully identified the stratigraphic strata and
estimated the N-values, which are critical for understanding the reasons of observed building
sinking and creating mitigating strategies. The results of the ERT and MASW investigations
indicated a three-layered soil structure, with each layer having distinct physical qualities. The
highest layer, with lower resistivity and shear wave velocities, suggests the presence of softer,
more compressible materials such as clays or organic-rich soils. These conditions are prone to
settlement under structural loads, which contributes to the university's current subsidence
difficulties. In contrast, the deeper strata showed much higher resistivity and shear wave
velocities, indicating denser and more solid materials capable of supporting massive
constructions. The N-value data revealed a direct measure of soil strength, with
measurements confirming the relative compaction of each layer. The increase in N-values
with depth supports the MASW and ERT findings, emphasizing the possibility of deeper, more
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Oboshenure, K. K., George, G. C., & Keme, P. (2024). Investigating Soil Instability and Subsidence Risks Using an Integrated ERT and MASW
Analysis. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(4). 310-326.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.124.17430
compact layers to serve as a secure foundation for new projects, assuming that foundation
systems can effectively reach them.
The findings of this study are significant for future construction and infrastructure planning at
Niger Delta University. It is suggested that building projects avoid weak foundations that do
not extend past the unstable higher layer. Instead, building should use deeper foundation
techniques that take advantage of the more stable layers described in this study. Furthermore,
if deep foundations are not possible, soil stabilization techniques such as grouting, pilings, or
stone columns should be considered to improve the load-bearing capability of poorer soils.
This research emphasizes the significance of precise subsurface studies in locations prone to
subsidence. The extensive analysis of soil layers and their properties sheds light on soil- structure interaction dynamics in a saturated, soft soil environment. This study's
comprehensive data and insights serve not just academic reasons, but also to assist
governmental decisions about land use, building codes, and infrastructure development in
sensitive areas. This closes the gap between research and practical, policy-oriented
applications, improving safety and sustainability in infrastructure development. Niger Delta
University may better manage its infrastructure demands by implementing geotechnically
informed construction procedures, assuring the long-term stability and safety of its structures
in the Niger Delta's tough environmental circumstances.
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