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European Journal of Applied Sciences – Vol. 12, No. 2
Publication Date: April 25, 2024
DOI:10.14738/aivp.122.16793
Adekola, P. O., Akintuyi, O. B., & Adeyemi, G. (2024). Dimensions of Forceful Displacements in Nigeria: Is Administration of
Humanitarian Assistance Skewed towards those Displaced by Violent Conflicts? European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(2).
279-288.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Dimensions of Forceful Displacements in Nigeria: Is
Administration of Humanitarian Assistance Skewed
towards those Displaced by Violent Conflicts?
Paul O. Adekola
ORCID: 0000-0002-2104-6548
Department of Population, Family & Reproductive Health, School of Public
Health, University of Medical Sciences (UNIMED), Ondo City, Nigeria, Department
of Political Science & International Relations, School of Social Sciences, University
of Geneva, 1211, Geneva 4, Switzerland and Research Centre for Anthropology
and Health, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000-370
Coimbra, Portugal
Olatubosun B. Akintuyi
Department of Cartography & GIS, Federal School of Surveying,
Oyo, Oyo State, Nigeria
Gideon Adeyemi
Department of Civil Engineering, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
Forceful displacement in Nigeria is mainly caused by violent conflict, urban
renewal, climate change, and oil exploration, among others. However,
humanitarian assistance in its various dimensions from the government, non- governmental organizations (NGOs) and other donor agencies have been skewed
mostly towards those displaced by violent conflict. This position paper examines
the implications of this imbalance in access to humanitarian assistance particularly
among those displaced through urban renewal and oil exploration. Rather than
testing hypotheses, this article relies on a robust review of the literature to answer
research questions related to the differences and implications of humanitarian
assistance individuals displaced by gentrification and oil exploration receive as
compared to what individuals displaced by violence receive. Findings from
reviewed empirical articles show most assistance goes to those displaced by violent
conflict and that poverty, destruction of the means of livelihood, depression, child
marriage, unemployment and poor inter-spousal communication are some of the
direct and/or indirect implications of forced displacement through urban renewal
and oil exploration in Nigeria. We maintain a position that this partial and lopsided
response is counterproductive and recommend that government extend similar
gestures to those displaced through urban renewal and oil exploration to alleviate
deep poverty and other socio-economic effects found in the reviewed articles.
Keywords: Forced displacement, urban renewal, oil exploration, conflict, Nigeria
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European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 12, Issue 2, April-2024
INTRODUCTION
Countries with huge population explosion in their main cities and those which experience
violent conflicts regularly are known for massive forceful population displacements. Various
studies on causes and effects of forced displacement have been undertaken in Asia as well as in
Africa especially in countries like China, Congo DR, Ghana, Hong Kong, Nigeria, Thailand, the
Philippines and South Africa (Adekola, Azuh, Amoo, Brownell & Cirella, 2022; Adekola, Azuh,
Adeloye & Amoo, 2018; Adekola, Allen & Tinuola, 2017; Adoga, 2016; Oyefara & Alabi, 2016;
Lee, 2008). Forceful displacement (FD) can occur through some forms as depicted in Figure 1.
Displacement may be induced by natural disaster defined in the national policy on internally
displaced persons (IDPs) by the Federal Republic of Nigeria as displacements caused by natural
hazards (floods, volcanoes, landslides, earthquakes), environmental change (deforestation,
desertification, land degradation, global warming) and human-induced disasters (industrial
accidents, radioactivity) (Federal Republic of Nigeria [FGN], 2012). FD is mostly caused by
violent conflicts in fragile environments like what is currently happening on Russian invasion
of Ukraine (BBC News, 2022) and terrorism perpetuated by groups like Boko Haram in North- East Nigeria as depicted in Figure 1. Forced displacement has also occurred in southern Nigeria
through oil exploration in the oil-rich region.
Figure 1: Nigeria Map Showing Causes & Geographical Dimension of Displacements in Nigeria
Source: Authors, 2024
As economically productive as oil exploration has been to the region, it has also caused massive
forceful displacements in oil rich states like Delta, Edo, Rivers, Ebonyi and Bayelsa (Opukri &
Ibaba, 2008). There have also been forceful displacements across many states in Nigeria due to
urban renewal (Adekola, et al., 2018; Adekola, et al., 2017; Adoga, 2016). This kind is most
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Adekola, P. O., Akintuyi, O. B., & Adeyemi, G. (2024). Dimensions of Forceful Displacements in Nigeria: Is Administration of Humanitarian Assistance
Skewed towards those Displaced by Violent Conflicts? European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 12(2). 279-288.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.122.16793
common when government decides to renew urban slums or gentrify entire ghettos altogether
which is a common occurrence in cosmopolitan cities in developing countries. For instance, in
Nigeria, many cities are growing beyond their capacities to maintain decent environment and
achieve environmental aesthetics causing growth of slums (Adedini, 2023). To keep Nigerian
cities in line with The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11 with the aim that
21st century cities be safe, resilient, inclusive & sustainable, then urban renewal must occur
from time to time in cities which regularly grow above available resources to match the urban
sprawl.
An evolving dimension of conflict-induced forceful displacement in Nigeria is caused by herders
and farmers crisis in North-Central Nigeria. The invasion of North-Central Nigeria by herdsmen
from the core north in search of green pasture and water having been forced to move away
from their habitual region by climate change, insecurity and suburbanization causes conflict
between farmers and herders (International Crisis Group [ICG], 2017). While herdsmen believe
that interstate movement with their cattle throughout Nigeria is a right; the farmers down- south perceive the invasion of their farmlands by Fulani herdsmen as infringement on
communal rights and property. This has severally caused escalation of riots between the two
parties leading to casualties in Benue, Plateau, Kaduna and Nasarawa States before it spread to
other states in Nigeria (ICG, 2017; Agbese, 2017). At the moment, many geo-political zones in
Nigeria have already been affected by herders-farmers conflict as depicted in Figure 2
Regardless of geographical regions, Nigerians have experienced forceful displacements
through any of the aforementioned means and face similar challenges despite the differences
in causes of displacement (Agbese, 2017; Amnesty International, 2006; Norwegian Refugee
Council, 2015; Opukri & Ibaba, 2008; Adekola, 2016). While displacement via violent conflict is
mostly domiciled in the North-East Nigeria through the activities of Boko Haram (Agbese,
2017); displacement through oil exploration is common in southern Nigeria especially in Rivers
State, Bayelsa State, Edo State and Delta State with multiple socio-economic and environmental
implications that follow (Opukri & Ibaba, 2008). Forceful displacement through urban
gentrification is mostly common in the southwestern part of Nigeria, the most developed,
populous and civilized region of Nigeria. Lagos, the biggest and most populous metropolitan
city in sub-Saharan Africa is located in this region as well as other cosmopolitan cities like
Ibadan, Abeokuta and Osogbo where urban gentrification is not uncommon (Adekola, et al.,
2018; Adekola, et al., 2017; Adoga, 2016; Oyefara & Alabi, 2016; Adekola, 2016; Uwadiegwu,
2015; Jimoh, Omole & Omosulu, 2013). Displacement through urban renewal is also a common
sight in Abuja, the Nigeria capital, Kano the second biggest town in Nigeria after Lagos and Port
Harcourt, the commercial hub of south-south geo-political zone of Nigeria. Although
displacement through environmental disaster can occur anywhere; however, it has become an
annual occurrence in Lagos, Kwara, Edo, Kogi, Oyo, Adamawa and Plateau States which are
notable for seasonal flooding (Oruonye, 2012; Adekola & Ogundipe, 2017) as shown in Figure
1.