Page 1 of 27
European Journal of Applied Sciences – Vol. 11, No. 2
Publication Date: April 25, 2023
DOI:10.14738/aivp.112.14282.
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the
Face of Climate Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South
Province. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community
Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate Change:
A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the
Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province.
Judith Kumalo
PhD Candidate: Zimbabwe Open University, Zimbabwe
10 – 23rd Avenue, Famona, Bulawayo
Dr Albert Manyani
Lecturer & Researcher: Geosciences Department
Bindura University of Science Education, Bindura, Zimbabwe
Abstract
The study identifies methods and practices adopted by communal subsistence
farmers in preparing fodder for their livestock in the face of climate change. The
purpose is to enhance fodder availability in the Garanyemba Ward 13, Gwanda
District in Matabeleland South Province, Zimbabwe. Explored are challenges that
affect methods / practices of fodder preparation on which livestock depends;
without which communities cannot survive. The study employed a mixed methods
research methodology; gathering data through face-to-face in-depth semi- structured interviews and questionnaire. Analysis was through descriptive
statistics, thematic and content analysis methods. Findings suggest that
Garanyemba communal farmers are overwhelmed with numerous problems that
affect fodder availability. Mountains and inselbergs have deprived the Ward of its
agricultural land and crop residues; a critical component of fodder. Climate change
has caused droughts, low rainfall, water shortage, non-availability of grass and
premature drying of rivers and wetlands which are the main sources of water. This
has caused serious shortage of fodder; and affected livestock productivity. These
challenges have driven communities to prepare fodder to protect livestock against
feed shortage; and losses during dry seasons. Cutting grass, crop residues, the ‘cut
and carry’ system, ‘emilageni’ – the ‘lagisa’ system; and novel initiatives comprise
the main methods of fodder preparation. Water harvested through sand dams
helps to grow fodder. Training has improved communities’ skills to make fodder.
Recommendations include construction of micro–dams, more sand dams and
piping water from the Thuli River to avail water; and start irrigation schemes to
grow fodder. Workshops and refresher courses on fodder preparation are
encouraged to skill communal subsistence farmers.
Keywords: communal subsistence farmers, livestock fodder and feed, droughts, climate
change, Zimbabwe.
INTRODUCTION
Zimbabwe has been experiencing recurrent droughts aggravated by climate change and its
variability for over two decades to date. This period (2000 to 2020) has been characterised
Page 2 of 27
293
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
with low and erratic rainfall patterns that have become the major cause of scarcity of feed and
water insecurity for livestock in Zimbabwe [46]; [44]. Problems of this nature have decreased
livestock production; and contributed to food insecurity and impoverishment of the rural
communities whose livelihoods are depended on crop-livestock systems [78]. The hardest hit
are the resource poor farmers, vulnerable pastoral and agro-pastoral households who have lost
valuable livestock during the dry seasons because of shortages of fodder [30]. The small-scale
farmers have unfortunately not been able to procure the commercial feed due to prohibitive
costs; and undeniably, the loss of livestock has badly impacted on their livelihoods [46].
The major droughts of 1992 and 2003 caused loss of livestock, and focus was largely directed
towards re-stocking efforts. However, according to [40], this move overlooked addressing the
critical issues of the carrying capacity, sustainability of thresholds and the ecological footprint
of large numbers of livestock. This is in the context of diminishing grazing areas and the special
contingent measures on the feed. Amongst other periods of concern, is the massive loss of
livestock in the Matabeleland South Province; following the prolonged droughts experienced
during period 2018 to 2019. [78] contends that this drought reduced the veldt grazing and
browsing and threatened livestock. This subsequently caused a sharp rise in the animal feed
prices. This occurrence created an urgent need to identify solutions to curb the deepening crisis
and the rising costs of feed production. The local media, [83] dated 5 September (2019) called
for an urgent response from the private and public sectors and farmers to work together to
avail fodder and feed for livestock for the Beit Bridge District. This was to avoid further huge
losses of livestock. As the year progressed, the same media dated 28th October (2019) reported
a loss of 4 539 herd of cattle due to the effects of drought in the Matabeleland South Province
[84]. Of this number, 600 cattle died in the Gwanda district; while 524 were lost in the Matobo
district; making a total loss of 1 124 in these two districts. The two articles requested for an
urgent preparation of fodder, drinking water points, vaccines and dipping chemicals to be done
through use of social networks in the affected communities. The loss of large numbers of
animals indicated an urgent reactive responses and lack of serious planning and preparation of
fodder for livestock in the Matabeleland South Province. [78] responded to this crisis and
identified fodder and feed formulation practices as crucial tools for building resilience;
alongside water management and control of diseases.
The global projections for livestock production for 2050 estimated an increased demand for
animal source foods in the low- and middle-income countries [2]; [5]. Such estimates create a
greater need for the supply of feed and fodder to sustain livestock production. These
projections further generate a great drive for farmers to invest more in the feed and fodder to
meet such demand [65]; [10]. The projections indicate that most of the world’s livestock;
particularly ruminants in the pastoral and extensive mixed systems in many developing
countries are likely to suffer from permanent or seasonal nutritional stress; resulting from the
impact of climate change. The shortage of feed and poor nutrition comprises some of the major
production constraints reported in the smallholder systems particularly in Africa [2]; [38]; [60].
The shortage of good quality feed the year round; particularly in the dry seasons has long been
recognised as one of the major limiting factors that affect livestock productivity in many
tropical countries; Zimbabwe inclusive [26]; [38]; [69]; [52].
Page 3 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 294
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
The drylands of Africa have not been spared either as countries like Kenya and Ethiopia have
been greatly affected too [60]. The main cause of scarcity of pastures has been attributed to
climate variability and change that have not only led to a decline in forage, but resulted in low
livestock production and in huge mortalities [12]. Nonetheless, the production and
conservation of fodder has been viewed as a crucial lasting intervention that helps to augment
households ‘nutritional and sources of income through enhanced livestock production [12].
Livestock production is the mainstay of pastoral and agro-pastoral economy. However, the
scarcity of pastures undermines and negatively affects the resilience of pastoral livelihoods
[27]. Livestock saves as a natural entry point in building resilience of small farmers because it
comprises productive assets that enhance people’s ability to cope with shocks [78]. In that
regard, livestock becomes handy after crop failure from the impact of climate change and
contributes to livelihoods of rural communities [77]; [56]. In addition, livestock also suffers
constraints from scarcity of water; and results in poor health [78].
Some fodder production technologies have been introduced in the drylands and these include
conservation and management of natural pastures mainly through enclosures and range
pastures by way of reseeding [31]. The native pastures and crop residues also form the major
sources of feed in the small holder livestock production systems in Zimbabwe. However, [26]
view these feed sources to have insufficient nutritional value in terms of supporting the
acceptable levels of livestock production. Notably, the other most limiting nutrient is protein
and yet it is necessary as a feed supplement to all classes of livestock to reduce losses in
productivity. Thus, this research focused on identifying the folder production methods used by
the local communities in Zimbabwe; particularly in Garanyemba Ward 13, in Gwanda, one of
the semi-arid districts.
THE DRIVE FOR RESEARCH
The study is driven by the deficiency, variance and inconsistency in the availability of quantity
and quality of feed and fodder for livestock in Zimbabwe; particularly during the dry seasons
[39]; [52]. This creates difficulties in the continuous supply of livestock feed. It also
undermines and negatively affects the resilience of pastoral livestock as a source of livelihoods;
particularly in the face of climate variability and change [27]. Though forage is abundant
during the rainy season [41]; it is of poor quality [34]. It very often lacks nutrition and proteins;
and rapidly declines during the dry seasons [39]; [52]. Research efforts have been made to
address challenges related to feed and fodder constraints globally. Amongst these researchers
are [78]; [39]; [10] and [44]. [61]’s focus was in the Mediterranean region and southern parts
of Europe. [1] argue that fodder production can be done in controlled environments. [3] and
[36] view the hydroponics concept to have the potential to guarantee constant production of
high quality of green forage throughout the year.
Most studies on forage have been conducted at research stations and higher altitude areas that
receive higher rainfall [29]; [39]. Other studies have been conducted out in the commercial
farms and in the high potential agro-ecological zones [51]. Meanwhile, [38] suggest that there
is urgent need to divert focus to the commercial areas of low agricultural potential
characterised by poor soil fertility and low and erratic rainfall. However, very little has focused
on the communal subsistence farmers, and in particular, in the Garanyemba Ward 13, in
Gwanda district of Matabeleland South Province, Zimbabwe. Hence, this research work set to
Page 4 of 27
295
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
explore the types of methods and practices adopted by the communal subsistence farmers in
preparing for fodder for their livestock to build resilience in the dictates of climate change that
is becoming dynamic by day.
THE PURPOSE OF FODDER PRODUCTION
Fodder production enables the prolonged availability of feed for livestock in periods of
shortage; especially during the dry seasons and in winter [78]. Fodder and feed formulation
practices are important for building the resilience of livestock systems in the face of increased
frequency of severe climate changes and related shocks [27]. Preparation of fodder acts as a
mitigatory factor against poor rainfall; and helps not only to improve the quantity and quality
of fodder, but to improve livestock health and its productive performance [10]. Preparation of
fodder further helps to improve the quantity and quality of animal source products for human
consumption [2]; [10]. Albeit, [78] warns against starting fodder development programmes in
the middle of severe droughts and from scratch as this may be a more difficult undertaking.
This is because long term benefits are often not easily and immediately recognisable. Given
such challenges, [78] suggests setting up of motivational awareness campaigns on the benefits
of taking up fodder and formulation of feed to enable the beneficiaries to appreciate related
projects.
In countries like Kenya, India and Ghana, fodder production has been adopted as a strategy to
mitigate adverse effects of unsustainable grazing practices; and to help rehabilitate degraded
lands [25]; [36]. However, while fodder production is predominantly used to feed livestock, in
Kenya, the surplus and the grass seedlings are sold to provide households income and regarded
as a source of livelihoods to earn a living [45]. Such projects help to improve the standards of
living and to reduce conflicts over grazing lands [79]; [45]; [33]. The rangelands are
rehabilitated through use of enclosed areas. Such programmes are reported to have significant
impact in reducing soil erosion and help towards improving water infiltration [68]. However,
very often changes in seasons arising from variability in climate, growth stages of plants and
uncontrolled grazing animals are some challenges that deter livestock from satisfying their
nutritional requirements; especially in the reproduction and most productive phases [38].
METHODS OF PREPARING FOR FODDER GLOBALLY
The main types of fodder preparation practices comprise crop residues, maize grains and
related cereals, fodder trees and shrubs, mixed crop – livestock systems and improved grasses.
Other types of fodder consist of unrestricted grazing, grasslands, rangelands, the ‘cut and carry’
system and grazing schemes and paddocks. Adhoc methods are characterised by training
programmes and growing of native grass and leguminous plants. Hydroponics and novel feed
sources are other types [38]; [82]; [61]; [41]; [44]; [57]; [48] and [78].
Crop residues and pastures are the main sources of cattle feed in many countries though this
type of feed contains low roughages [43]; [44]. In Zimbabwe, the production of maize crop
accounts for about 80-90% of the total cereal area [53]. This crop is mostly grown under rain
fed condition; and its production has often been hampered by frequent dry spells and erratic
rainfall emanating from the impact of climate change [35]; [14]. Such unfavourable conditions
reduce the quantity of crop residues produced [44]. Part of the crop residues come from the
production of sorghum and millet stalks. However, production of these small grains lacks
Page 5 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 296
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
farming knowledge, the general interest in the uptake of such crops by communities and lack
of funding; resulting in limited production acreage [50]; and limited stalks too [58]. Albeit, [44]
posit that sorghum stalks are palatable and its consumption increases digestibility in livestock.
This improves milk production and quality of meat. Maize grains and related cereals are
popular in the United States of America and Europe; and fodder preparation becomes a pre- requisite ahead of winter to avoid shortage outside the agricultural season [82]; [10].
Fodder trees and shrubs are common indispensable sources of animal feed in the
Mediterranean region and southern parts of Europe [61]. This fodder is in the form of browsing
reserves providing feed for part of the day; and feeding reserves that provide fodder in winter
months. However, these sources are affected by selective grazing which [11] describes to be
creating problems of overgrazing, destruction of certain species and desertification in brittle
environment. Mixed crop – livestock farming systems strive to balance between providing food
for humans and fodder for animals [44]. This method helps to mitigate shortage of fodder. [38]
consider improved grasses to have a great potential of alleviating the shortage of livestock feed;
because these grasses comprise one of the biggest sources of fodder. Some of these grass
species include the Rhodes, the Napier, Star and the Bhana types. However, the adoption of the
related technologies has been relatively poor both in the smallholder and communal farming
systems. [73] states that the advantages of using improved grasses as fodder have been
observed through gains in the live and carcass weights. Legumes are another source of fodder
for livestock; and have many advantages such as high protein content and nitrogen fixing
capabilities.
Grasslands are another source of feed in southern Africa [60]. Meanwhile, rangelands form the
main resources for livestock feeding; due to lack of finances for many livestock holders to
procure supplementary commercial feed [57]. The ‘cut and carry’ fodder system is very
common; particularly in dry seasons. [16] encourages farmers to adopt this method of
providing feed to livestock. Grasses such as Bhana, Star and Rhodes and pods of edible shrubs
are cut and transported to food reserves and animal feed sites. [61] explains that branches of
fodder trees are carried to the barns to supplement livestock feed. The grazing schemes and
paddocks have been adopted to establish simple, but functional grazing management systems
to improve rangelands and animal productivity [48]; [70]. However, these have been
abandoned due to serious water shortage. Adhoc methods have been in the form of training to
provide fodder preparation skills to the communities.
CONSTRAINTS AFFECTING THE IMPROVEMENT OF COMMUNAL GRAZING AREAS
[26] and [70] indicate that improved pastures are generally low in Zimbabwe, due to
unavailability of recommended seed varieties and high maintenance costs. [26] give an
example of the Chikwaka Dairy Scheme which has suffered the damage to forage, browse
seedlings and plants caused by the free grazing livestock. Poor soils that cause poor quality
grazing, shifting seasonal feed deficiency in terms of quantity and quality, low rainfall resulting
in water scarcity and recurrent droughts have affected feed for livestock too. [26] indicate that
costs of fencing materials were prohibitive due to unaffordable costs. Farmers had
expectations upon the government or non-governmental organisations to provide them with
seeds for forage / tree seedlings. Such perceptions resulted in farmers making very little effort
to do things for themselves. Uncontrolled grazing with animals gaining access to the cultivated
Page 6 of 27
297
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
fodder areas, limited land to grow fodder trees, lack of knowledge on management of fodder
seed nurseries and planting of trees comprised other challenges. Besides, fodder trees take
about two years to mature and be harvested.
ADHOC METHODS OF PREPARING FOR FODDER
Training programs have been unrolled to build capacity to produce and conserve fodder; for
resilience. The most targeted were the Agritex personnel and farmers [78]. Albeit, such
programs have been cascaded to benefit respective wards with an objective of equipping
livestock holders to avail fodder the whole year round. The selected fodder crops were drought
resistant. At the same time, the grasses namely the Bhana type and forage sorghum were
adopted to provide the much-needed energy [46]. Notably, positive results were reported on
the improved handling of crop residue practices post training [78].
ALTERNATIVE FODDER
Hydroponics Fodder
As the livestock population increases, a large gap exists between requirements and availability
of feed to maintain annual nutrient requirements [3]. Feeding animals becomes deficient
without the inclusion of green fodder, such as green forage in their diets. This type of fodder
enhances the productive and reproductive performance of livestock [67]. However, the
production of green fodder faces major constraints such as the decrease in land size for
cultivation, scarcity of water and labour requirements in many developing countries [3]; [1].
An alternative solution has been viewed as the growing of hydroponics fodder to improve the
production of fodder [64]. Hydroponics fodder production is carried out in trays and under
specially designed, clean and hygienic environment; particularly inside the greenhouses [36].
This system has a short growing period that ranges from 7 to 10 days; and requires a small
piece of land [23]; [22]; [80]. The hydroponics system produces high quality feed rich with
proteins, fibres, vitamins and minerals [3]. This fodder production system is based on the basic
principle that cereal grains respond to water or nutrients rich solutions such as nitrogen,
phosphorous, potassium, sulphur and magnesium for germination and growth [3]; [62]. Plants
mature faster and more evenly under this system than in a conventional soil-based system [7];
[36]. Maize fodder grown under hydroponics yields on fresh basis 5 to 6 times higher than
obtained in a traditional farm production system; and is more nutritious [54]. However,
growing of sorghum crops is not preferred under this production system because of its toxicity
to animals [36]. High production results qualify the hydroponics concept as an advanced
technology in agriculture that can meet the growing of nutrients requirements for livestock
feed with suitable prices. This system is also capable of guaranteeing a constant production of
high-quality green fodder throughout the year [3].
Though viewed as primitive, the hydroponics fodder production technology has gained
popularity in the developed countries in the recent years. [1] explain that its purpose is to
address shortage of green fodder for livestock production; particularly in the extreme climates
arising from the effects of climate change. This system is viewed as a technology for green
fodder production under resource deficit conditions [36]. Grains like barley, wheat, maize,
alfalfa, oat, rye, millets, sunflower seeds and lentils can be grown in a controlled environment
for fodder production. Commercial hydroponics fodder companies have reported that about 6
– 10kg of fresh green fodder could be produced from 1.0kg gram within 7 – 10 days [1]. This is
Page 7 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 298
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
by way of providing suitable controlled spaces with hydroponics techniques. This is also
achieved through providing suitable temperatures, humidity and lighting rooms [18]; [28];
[20].
The open field produced fodder for livestock is often disturbed by abrupt changes in climate
[13]. This technology uses rich water nutrients solutions that are provided directly to the root
zone; and the growing process suffers no changes in climates [1]. The hydroponics fodder
technology produces the type of animal feed made from plants grown from seeds without soil;
and requires very little water. Hence, this technology becomes an appropriate solution towards
addressing the challenges of droughts and scarcity of water [36]; [1]. This fodder comprises
young tender green grass grown from cereal grains mostly barley. Production of this type of
fodder replaces the grass like dairy meals; and provides the required nutrients for quantity and
quality production of milk [62]; [36]. However, this method of fodder production is less
practiced in the developing countries [36]; [1]. Fodder crops generally receive less attention
and priority over other crops in most countries in the Middle East, India and Africa that
experience severe shortage of food supplies for livestock due to repeated droughts and lack of
water for irrigation [6]; [36]. Albeit, the hydroponics technology of fodder production
addresses the problems of droughts, scarcity of irrigation water, shortage of land and farm
labour and unavailability of credit facilities; and greenhouse gases [19]; [36]. Hydroponics
fodder operation is done in greenhouses, vertical farms and shipping containers and in
staircases with trays of different dimensions to capitalise on the small cultivation space
available [1]. In that regard, fodder produced under hydroponics conditions is cost effective,
environmentally friendly and is viewed as the best alternative under resource deficient
conditions; and thus becomes sustainable [62]. Hydroponics fodder consists of root, stem,
leaves and grains; compared with the stem and leaves that form part of the animal diet [36].
This type of fodder is characterised by high digestibility, nutrition, palatability and increased
milk production [19].
Novel Sources of Livestock Feed
According to [74] and [32], there are prospects of using novel feeds from various sources to
provide alternative sources of protein and energy for livestock. [16] echoes these sentiments
and broadens the scope of providing fodder; and encourages access to agro-industrial products
such as molasses and sugar top, maize and sorghum. [74] further suggests that some of these
sources could be plantation crops and various other industrial by -products like ethanol.
Notably, the potential of such feeds is largely unknown. As such, this line of fodder may need
further research. Albeit, [32] describe ethanol as a biofuel product from cereal grains such as
corn, sorghum or wheat; and corn is by far the most common feedstock used. Co-products from
the ethanol industry are useful ingredients for beef cattle producers. [32] explain that the
distillers’ grains and solubles are relatively high in crude protein, contain modest amounts of
fat and are an excellent source of protein and energy for beef cattle. The distillers’ grains
contain a fermented aromatic flavour that provides a very palatable taste to livestock.
However, [32] recommend regular sampling and laboratory analysis and to adjust rations
accordingly for optimum product use and nutrition; and for the safety of livestock. Production
of fodder is marred by a number of challenges. Literature indicates high costs of land
preparation, procurement of grass seed, poor seed quality, high input costs, problems of weeds,
lack of seed harvesting skills and working capital are cited as the main challenges that affect
Page 8 of 27
299
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
production of fodder [55]; [70]. Unavailability of land, effects of climate change resulting in
droughts, scarcity of water and lack of water for irrigation, infertile and rocky land and the cold
that stretches for five months comprise other challenges that affect fodder production globally
[82]; [1].
Challenges that attribute to the limited supply of quality feed in many African countries include
long dry seasons propelled by the impacts of climate change, degraded soils, inadequate use of
best management of rangelands, poor management of irrigation schemes, unavailability of
seed, feeding mainly crop residues to livestock, overgrazing and lack of storage of feed / fodder
facilities and financial constraints [26]; [38]; [70]; [10]. Generally, there is low adoption of
improved technologies by the smallholder farmers despite efforts from the government and
external development organisations [8].
Haymaking and storage are the one of the common practices used to prepare for fodder in the
sub-Saharan Africa; and many other countries. [72] describes haymaking as the grass or other
plants such as clover or alfalfa that are cut and dried for fodder. However, [76] highlight that
the overall production levels remain low because of rain and high humidity conditions which
prevent haymaking when the forage is at its optimal yield and nutritive value. The purpose of
silage making is to conserve forage for off - season feeding. However, [10] posit that silage
remains a challenge under the tropical conditions because of high temperatures that cause
rapid deterioration at all stages of handling, storing and feeding. [10] state that the quality of
silage is also usually poor because of inadequate storage and compaction. Though some
countries have opted to make hay from cultivating forage on a perennial basis, [4] argue that
this method is still not common knowledge in the sub-Saharan Africa.
In Zimbabwe, feed is often unavailable from May to October perennially. This creates some of
the major constraints and challenges that affect inter alia the smallholder dairy sector. The high
costs of procurement of fodder and the non – existence of on–farm forage / fodder, silage and
hay production make the dairy sector unprofitable for the smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe
[16]; [38]; [70]. Various challenges compounded making of fodder and these included lack of
sufficient knowledge and skills of how to produce fodder to extension workers and
communities, lack of training and commitment to making fodder, inadequate land to cultivate
fodder, not owning livestock, and failure to realise that fodder crops could grow well in the
farmers’ respective areas [16]. A number of farms were located in the extreme dry areas; and
this compounded making of fodder; particularly in the Mzingwane and Mushagashe areas [16].
STUDY SETTING AND METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in the Garanyemba Ward 13, in Gwanda district, in Matabeleland
South Province of Zimbabwe. This district lies in the southern part of Zimbabwe; and is located
in region V which is the hottest and driest in the country. The region is determined by the
rainfall regime, quality of soils and vegetation among other factors [49]; [21]. Temperatures
are very high and range from 22 to 30 degree Celsius; and may rise slightly beyond at times.
This Ward is characterised by low and erratic rainfall that averages 300 to 350 mm annually
[66]; [21]. The Garanyemba Ward 13 is arid with soils generally poor, infertile and rocky; with
the vegetation consisting of mopane woodlands and acacia trees / shrubs savanna [49].
Gwanda district suffers from droughts that occur almost every five years and at least for 3 years
Page 9 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 300
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
in succession [66]. This results in communal lands experiencing perennial droughts and
vegetation becoming bleak and summer setting in as early as May. Tilled land yields virtually
nothing almost on a yearly basis; and poverty hits hard this district [9]; [59]. Matobo district
lies to the south west of Gwanda district, Bulawayo to the north, Zvishavane to the north east
and Beit Bridge to the south east [37]. Within Gwanda district lies the Gwanda town which is
the capital of Matabeleland South Province. The Garanyemba Ward 13 [Figure 1] lies 22km to
the south of Gwanda town and is located in a mountainous area. This ward comprises 8 villages
namely Mawane 1, Mawane 2, Switsha, Mutandawenhema, Nsimbi, Zhogwe, Sifanjani and
Garanyemba [24]. Mixed farming with cereal cropping and cattle ranching, artisanal mining,
cross border trading, brick moulding and casual labour form the main sources of livelihoods in
this district. The study area is under the jurisdiction of Chief Nhlamba [24].
Figure 1: Sourced from (https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Map-of-the-study-area-in- Gwanda-district-Matabeleland-South-Province-in-Zimbabwe_fig1_349504457) (Accessed: 15
March, 2023).
Research Methods
The study adopted a mixed methods research approach; to allow for scientific reasoning and
objectivity [15]; [42]. At the same time, the study accommodated perceptions because fodder
preparation is a subject of everyday life for different groups of people and communities in their
natural settings in the Garanyemba Ward 13, Gwanda district. This approach was selected
because it allows for objectivity and for an interpretive naturalistic approach to its subject
matter and attempts to make sense from interpreting a phenomenon in terms of the meaning
that people bring in [17]. A mixed method approach was used by the research to obtain data
Page 10 of 27
301
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
independent of participants’ perceptions to increase data reliability and validity [75]. In other
words, the approach gives the research an insider perspective as well as the objectivity aspect
to facilitate triangulation to strengthen findings. Data was gathered through a questionnaire
with closed questions for 8 respondents; and also used the face-to-face in-depth semi- structured interviews with 6 people within the Garanyemba Ward 13. The primary study
population comprised 8 villagers; and 6 key informant interviewees who hold positions of
authority in the Garanyemba Ward in the Gwanda district, in Zimbabwe. The key informants
comprised an environment management agency (EMA) officer, an agritex representative, a
headman, and women’s affairs representative, Ward councillor and a non-governmental
organisation representative. These people were deemed knowledgeable about what was
happening within the Ward; and were aware of fodder preparation methods and practices
adopted in the Garanyemba Ward 13. The study used a random sample to identify the
villagers; and a purposive sample to select the key informants. The interviews were conducted
in English, Shona and Ndebele languages. Participants were advised to choose the language of
preference and interviews lasted for 45 minutes to one hour.
Research Ethics
The research took cognisance of the research ethics in conducting this project; particularly in
dealing with human subjects. These were strictly adhered to. The research was conducted with
respect, obtained informed consent from participants, observed confidentiality, privacy and
anonymity, avoided causing any harm to participants and endeavoured to report findings with
integrity [81]; [63]; [73]. Informed consent was sought from participants and was granted
prior to the carrying out of interviews. Another informed consent was sought from participants
prior to recording of interviews; and this was granted too. The researcher explained to the
participants that the solicited information was going to be used for academic purposes only;
and would be kept with strict confidentiality. More importantly, the researcher explained that
the names of participants were not going to be stated on the data collection tools. This was to
make participants remain anonymous in reporting the findings.
Data Analysis
The quantitative data was analysed through descriptive statistics; while the qualitative set was
done through thematic analysis and content analysis. Interview recordings were transcribed
and translated from Shona and Ndebele languages to English. Verbatim transcriptions were
coded and categorised according to the emerging themes. The emerging themes that were
recurrent within and between interviewers helped the researcher to understand the methods
and practices used by the Garanyemba Ward 13 subsistence farmers to prepare for their
livestock feed / fodder.
FINDINGS OF THE STUDY
Methods and Practices for Preparations for Fodder
The Geographical Location of the Garanyemba Ward 13:
The findings suggest that the Garanyemba Ward 13 is situated in a mountainous area where
the greater part of the space has been occupied by a lot of mountains and inselbergs. These
mountains do not only limit the availability of grass for livestock and grazing space, but
frustrate the agricultural production space too. In turn, this situation reduces the production
of crops and crop residues that partly provide livestock feed. This ward experiences very high
Page 11 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 302
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
temperatures and low rainfall. Nkumbu, Sengezane and Pendi Rivers run dry early part of the
year. This results in the shortage of water for domestic use, for watering animals and for
irrigation purposes. The following interview excerpt shows the geographical set up and the
severity of water shortage in this ward: “Here we live in mountains full of baboons and
monkeys; and there is no grass for livestock and land to grow crops. This is why we cannot
keep many cattle because we have nothing to feed them. Shortage of water is a serious problem
too in this area. Underlying the ward is a huge granite rock whose surface area covers the
greater part of the ward. This makes it difficult for communities to drill boreholes deeper than
30 metres. This is the reason why there are no boreholes in this area. The availability of water
is the source of life to all biodiversity. However, this situation frustrates growing of anything
outside the rain season”.
Findings further reveal that majority of the participants owned livestock comprising cattle,
donkeys, goats and sheep and road runners [Figure 2 except a few households. Though 99%
own livestock, the herd sizes are limited because of lack of grazing space and pastures. In the
Garanyemba Ward 13, wetlands that used to be a permanent source of natural water now run
dry shortly after the rain season. This results in shortage of water; particularly for livestock.
Figure 2: The Types of Livestock Kept
One participant elaborated that: “Here, rivers hardly overflow and they dry very early in the
year. The riverbed wateris also difficult to get. This makes water very\scarce. The Thuli is the
biggest river in this ward, however, it is about 14 km or more from many villages. This makes
drawing of water and its availability extremely difficult. Livestock, in particular cattle are
forced to travel long distances in search of pastures and water. In the process, these assets have
succumbed to threats from wild animals and are also affected by stock thefts”.
The Understanding of the Concept of Fodder Preparation:
The findings indicate that communities are familiar with the term ‘fodder’. One participant
confirmed this and said: “This concept is the preparation of livestock feed to be utilised in
future, for example, during the dry the season. The purpose is to avert the starvation of cattle
especially during droughts. Notably, in this place, fodder is either prepared or grown. Its
production involves cutting grass and tree branches. It is also grown and this involves clearing
of land, planting of grass seeds, adding fertiliser and implementing loss control measures such
as use of pests control”.
cattle, 11.3
donkeys 16.1
goats and
sheep, 24.2
road runners,
48.4
pigs, 0
Livestock Kept
Page 12 of 27
303
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
Another participant added: “Lokhu yikudla kwezifuyo okulungiswayo” translated to mean: This
is livestock feed which is prepared from various locally available raw forest ingredients”.
Findings from this study suggest that the communities are aware of the presence of climate
change and its impact on their livelihoods. More importantly, they realise the frequent drought
periods and low rainfall and the impact of these factors on livestock which is the prime source
of their livelihoods. In that regard, communities have taken up various initiatives to prepare
for fodder for their livestock to protect their assets against shortage of feed and to avert their
death.
Methods Used to Prepare Fodder:
The threats posed on livestock and its productivity and related food products which are sources
of communities’ livelihoods have driven communities to prepare for cattle fodder. This is to
mitigate death of livestock in the Matabeleland South Province. Communities have adopted
various methods to prepare for livestock feed. The findings reveal that 80% of the
communities prepare for livestock fodder; while about 20% does not [Figure 3].
Figure 3: The Percentage of Communities that Prepare Fodder
Grass is cut, dried and rolled into bales and stored in a roofed space under the shed. The bales
are used as fodder during shortage of feed especially in August, September and October into
November when grass is scarce. Maize crop residues and sorghum stalks are collected from the
fields post harvesting period. Groundnuts and legumes bushes are harvested too. This stuff is
dried and bound; and stored under the shed for future use. Findings show that 29% of the
communities’ harvest about one to four tons of fodder; while 71% does not.
Another participant stated that: “Siyagcina amahlanga, amahlamvu awomileyo lotshani
bezifuyo”. This translates to mean: ‘we keep crop residues, dried leaves and grass for livestock
feed’. This involves collecting maize crop residues, sorghum stalks and legume bushes post
harvesting for our livestock from the fields. This also entails cutting grass and collecting dried
tree leaves [Figure 4] and storing these ingredients together”.
0
20
40
60
80
% that does prepare
fodder
% that does not prepare
fodder
percentage
The Percentage of Communities that Prepare Fodder
Page 13 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 304
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
The Agritex Officer explained that: “Sometimes the residues, stalks and groundnuts and legume
bushes are packed when they are partly dry or semi- dry. This is then placed on the wooden or
steel tray driers placed under the shed. Coarse salt is sprinkled on the legume bushes. Then
salt melts slowly on the bushes to preserve them and also to make them tasty. However, there
are other leaves that are initially dried and stacked after they are completely dry”.
Figure 4: Types of Fodder Prepared
The findings indicate that livestock fodder is also obtained from the forest. Dried leaves from
the mopane trees are collected too and packed in 50 kg bags for use during the dry season.
Melons are also collected from the fields and stored in a safe and enclosed place as
supplementary fodder. The total fodder harvested is stacked on structures made of timber or
concrete platforms that stand about a metre high above the ground. This helps to protect
against destruction by termites and from being eaten by animals prematurely. This is a way of
building up fodder banks. Findings indicate that 50% of the participants have fodder banks.
However, there is quite a number of communities who do not partake in this fodder making
preparation.
One participant stated that: “Grass is mixed with mopane tree leaves and all that is eaten by
livestock to make fodder”.
Fodder Harvesting Methods in the Driest Months:
The findings suggest that in the driest months, communities interact with their environment in
search for fodder. 71% of the communities cut and carry tree branches from ‘umkamba’-
afzelia, ‘umganu’ - marula’ also referred to as sclerocarya caffra, ‘mopane’ tree, ‘mbondo’ - tree
and ‘umpumpulwane’ or ‘umklampunzi’ – grewia monticola to feed their livestock. This type of
feed is eaten by livestock in their fresh state. However, 29% indicated that they do not practice
this system [Figure 5].
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
maize crop residue
sourgum stalks
legume/ground nuts bushes
grass
tree leaves
cut and carry system
buying white grain
other assorted
percentage
Types of Fodder Prepared
Page 14 of 27
305
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
Figure 5. The Cut and Carry Fodder System
The ‘cut and carry’ system is practiced round about September, October and November when
there is completely no grass. More importantly, this system is given preference to the very lean
livestock, the dairy cows and calves. Maize grains are also fed to livestock. However, this type
of fodder is adopted by a few households; because of prohibitive procurement costs.
Findings from the study reveal that the Garanyemba Ward 13 completely runs out of grass for
livestock to an extent that animals almost lick the soil. Findings further reveal that under such
circumstances, 57% of the communities send their livestock to the neighbouring farms, while
36% send to ‘emilageni’ – ‘lagisa’, (distant ranching places where livestock is herded until
pastures improve), 50% grow fodder for their livestock, whereas 29% buy fodder from retail
outlets. However, growing of fodder is affected by the non-availability of water within the
majority of the villages in the Garanyemba area. Albeit, Nsimbi village is the only village out of
8 within this ward that has constructed two sand dams. The Nkumbu sand dam was
constructed across Nkumbu River; while the Sabhakatsha Sand Dam is across the Pendi River.
The Councillor explained that: “These sand dams capture water during the rainy season; and
store it right through the year until the next rainfall season. However, the rest of the villages
have very little water supplies. Communities in these villages enjoy the privilege of drawing
water from the sand dams and use it to cultivate fodder; and for watering their livestock.
Zhogwe and Mawane 1 villages operate large scale gardens very close to the Thuli River. This
is where the two villages draw their water and also grow fodder; amongst other crops, but on
a small scale”.
Findings suggest that 36% of the communities grow fodder in the fields; while others cultivate
it in their gardens, but on a very small scale. However, the rest of the communities do not grow
any fodder.
Types of Seeds Used to Grow Fodder:
Findings suggest that 50% of the communities grow Lab-lab only. Another 50% grow velvet
only. 21% grow a mixture of lab –lab, sun hemp and velvet, 14% grow maize; and another 14%
grow the Bhana grass. Meanwhile, 7% grow a combination of lab-lab, velvet and Lucerne for
cattle feed [Figure 6].
71
29
Cut and Carry Fodder System
% that that harvest fodder % that does not harvest fodder
Page 15 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 306
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
Figure 6: Types of Seeds used to Grow Fodder
The paddock system is practiced in the Garanyemba Ward 13; and provides fodder for
livestock. To make paddocks give meaningful feeding results, the grazing is supposed to be
rotated. However, findings indicate that only 21% of the communities rotate their livestock to
avoid overgrazing, while 79% does not do so. This defeats the effectiveness of this source of
fodder; and the purpose for which the system is intended. Findings indicate that very few
villages, that is, 29% have grazing land close to their homes. However, the rest of the
communities do not have such pastures to feed their livestock. To address shortage of feed,
about 93% of the communities sell some of their livestock to raise cash to buy feed for the other
livestock. However, 7% does not do so. This may perhaps be because this lot does not own any
livestock. None-the-less, 36% of the communities’ harvest grass and shrubs and sell to other
community members to earn a living; while 64% does not do so.
Training Received on Fodder Preparation and Livestock Management:
Findings indicate that there are basically no local suppliers of fodder except a few. In that
regard, it has become imperative for communities to learn how to prepare for fodder. The
findings of the study further reveal that preparation of fodder is enhanced through training
programmes that incorporate livestock management. The findings further indicate that 70%
of the participants were trained on the preparation of fodder; while 30% have not received any
training.
One community member explained that:“There are no pastures because there is no land and
water in this area. Therefore, efforts have been made to train quite a number of community
members on the preparation of livestock fodder. Institutions like Agritex, Icrisat, Practical
Action and other non-governmental organisations have conducted some training programmes
on how to prepare for fodder in this area to avoid loss of cattle. The training has also covered
management of livestock. Notably, by and large, Agritex has been very active in these training
programmes because of droughts and shortage of fodder. However, non-governmental
organisations have assisted to train us too; and we are grateful”.
The Periods When Fodder is Prepared:
Findings reveal that the communities choose various periods to prepare for fodder for their
livestock. 14% indicated that fodder is prepared between February and March, while 36%
0 5 10 15 20 25
lab-lab
velvet
grow a mixture of lab-lab and...
maize
bhana Grass
Lucerne/lab-lab/velvet
Types of seeds used to growfodder
Page 16 of 27
307
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
prepare for fodder during April and May. 21% prepare for fodder in June, July and August
[Figure 7]. Though all harvested fodder is considered to be fine, it is the community’s belief
that the fodder harvested from June to August is stronger. This type of fodder is also believed
to be resistant to rotting because it will have gone through very cold weather. Meanwhile, 7%
indicated that they do not prepare for fodder; perhaps because they do not own any cattle.
Figure 7: Periods When Fodder is Prepared
CHALLENGES THAT FACE FODDER PREPARATION
The study found that though about 71% of the participants tried to prepare for fodder, their
efforts were affected by low rainfall and persistent droughts. Low rainfall results in very little
grass growing within the Ward; and this declines the potential volumes to be harvested.
Droughts catalyse early drying of tree leaves; and this has compounded the non - availability of
fodder. Unpredictability and shortage of rainfall has affected agricultural production too. This
situation has further resulted in the production of low maize crop residues and sorghum stalks
that constitute part of fodder.
The Headman indicated that: “There are also times where the little fodder that we harvest gets
spoiled by too much rains. At other times, too much sun / heat has affected the collected fodder
due to lack of proper storage facilities. The Garanyemba ward 13 lacks equipment to harvest
fodder and knowledge of making fodder. The ward also faces lack of co-operation from farmers
in terms of making fodder. In addition, we have realised that people are generally reluctant to
venture into fodder production related programmes. This affects the availability of fodder for
livestock in this ward”.
LESSONS LEARNT IN FODDER PREPARATION
One lesson learnt in fodder making is through ‘ukugebhela amahlanga ufake i “molasses” (Novel
case). This translates to mean: ‘we dig a pit and bury crop residues and add molasses’ from the
sugar making industry. The other lesson is to avoid storing fodder ingredients in their moist
state, but to completely dry them to avoid rotting. The youth representative explained this
method of making fodder and said:“The pit system fodder making’ method requires a pit which
measures two metres deep by two metres wide by two metres long. Crop residues, grass and
dried mopane leaves are put into the ‘pit’ and added together with ‘molasses’. This stuff is
subsequently covered by wooden logs. The logs are covered by a layer of crop residues which
are finally covered by a layer of soil for two months, that is, from August to end of September.
23
46
31
Periods when fodder is prepared
february to march april to may june to august
Page 17 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 308
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
The mixture becomes soft and it is removed from the ‘pit’ and the stuff is administered to
livestock in five litre measures. This type of fodder is quite filling and keeps cattle strong and
going during the dry seasons”.
The other lesson learnt is the method of growing legumes such as velvet. The communities
have also learnt how to plant fodder grass and in particular, the Lucerne type and the harvesting
processes of these species. The third lesson is how to keep the ‘mopane’ tree leaves for future.
Albeit, 20% indicated that there were no lessons learnt. One participant, the Disaster Risk
Reduction Representative, explained that:“Preparation of fodder is basically determined by the
availability of rain. Albeit, communities have learnt that the cultivated type of fodder is given
to livestock whilst it is green as well as in its dried state. ‘Njalo kuqakathekile ukugcina ukudla
kwenkomo emthunzini okungela langa khona”. This translates to say: ‘It is important to keep
livestock fodder under the shed where there is no direct sun’. This prevents fodder from
changing its colour and to maintain its taste”.
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
The Discussion on the Fodder Methods and Practices in the Garanyemba Ward
Fodder determines the survival of livestock which is a great source of livelihoods to many
African communities [27]. In that regard, fodder saves as the engine that drives livestock
production, its productivity, quality and animal food sources for human source products [2];
[10]. The findings of this study reveal that the Garanyemba Ward 13 is located in the Gwanda
district which lies in region V popularly known for livestock ranching. Besides being
surrounded by too many mountains and inselbergs, the Ward faces too many challenges that
threaten among other things, the availability of fodder for livestock. This geographical set up
has left very little space for natural growth of grass for pastures which provide the main source
of livestock fodder in the Garanyemba Ward 13. This situation has caused shortage of pastures.
Inadequate land has also affected crop production which is another source of fodder. This Ward
experiences low and erratic rainfall, very high temperatures and droughts that emanate from
the impact of climate change. This state has resulted in the low crop residues and legume
bushes which form part of livestock fodder. The sum total of these challenges has reduced the
herd of cattle that communities would naturally rear. This situation has deterred the
production of livestock which is one of the major sources of livelihoods for this Ward [24].
The findings reveal that, because of low rainfall and droughts, the Pendi, Nkumbu and
Sengezane Rivers that supply water to the Ward dry up early. Wetlands that were normally an
alternative source of water to the Ward now dry up soon after the rainfall season. This state
has caused serious shortage of water within the ward. This has basically frustrated growing of
a lot of crop species. These findings have been highlighted by [1] to be affecting most Middle
Eastern and African countries. The impact of droughts and shortage of water has resulted in
most developed countries such as the United States of America, Australia and Canada adopting
alternative fodder production methods like hydroponics to address shortage of fodder;
particularly, the green type. The long-term water solution is from the Thuli River, which is
however, about 14 km from many villages except two; namely Zhogwe and Mawane 1. Findings
further reveal that the greater part of the Garanyemba Ward 13 is seated on a granite stone.
This base affects the depth of boreholes which do not go beyond 30 metres. This underlying
rock deters the availability of alternative sources of water. However, this challenge has not been
Page 18 of 27
309
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
cited in the literature before. The findings of the study indicate that climate change has
accelerated the non - availability of pastures and has driven communities to prepare for
livestock fodder to protect their cattle from shortage of feed and to avert their loss in dry
seasons. These findings resemble the initiatives taken by countries such as Ghana, India and
Kenya to grow fodder on a large scale as cited by [25]; [60]; [36]. Further indications are that
almost everyone seems familiar with the concept of fodder; because of the prevailing droughts
in the area. Findings reveal that communities have harvest grass, collect dried mopane tree
leaves and cut fresh tree branches which are natural resources. Grass is the prime source of
fodder; followed by crop residues, sorghum stalks and legume bushes which come second in
this area. Crop residues are collected internationally [82]; [10]. However, communities in the
Garanyemba collect meagre quantities of maize crop residues, sorghum stalks and dried
groundnuts and legumes bushes as part of livestock feed. The very little tonnage is a result of
low rainfall and droughts as highlighted by [35]; [14]; [44]. Sorghum stalks are viewed to be
palatable and have the potential to increase digestibility [44]. Though [43] and [44] indicate
that crop residues contain low quality of roughages, the findings of this study do not reveal any
knowledge of the communities knowing this deficiency. The communities do not appear to
know the deficiency of nutrition and proteins in grass and crop residues [38]; [52]. While other
countries use yellow and purple types of maize to provide feed to livestock, the Garanyemba
Ward 13 is availing white maize grains as livestock fodder. However, this is on a very small
scale because of very low crop production arising from the challenges of droughts and low
rainfall. Findings suggest that the dried mopane tree leaves are gathered and packed in 50 kg
bags. This type of fodder is kept under the shed and administered to livestock during the dry
seasons when there is shortage of fodder. The ‘cut and carry’ system is a very popular fodder
availing method; and is also used in southern Europe [61]. [16] recommends the acacia and
mopane tree branches, grass species such as the Bhana, Star and Rhodes and pods of edible
shrubs to be transported to food reserves and animal feeding sites to provide fodder.
In the driest months, the communities use the ‘cut and carry’ system. The main shrubs used as
fodder for this system comprise fresh and dried mopane trees leaves, fresh tree leaves for
‘umkamba’ – afzelia quanzensis, ‘umbondo’ – combretum molle, ‘umganu’ – solerocarya caffra
and ‘umklampunzi’ / ‘umpumpulwane’ – grewia monticola tree species available within the
Garanyemba ward 13. Findings reveal that this Ward has notably taken on board melons
[Figure 8] to supplement fodder. Melons are said to grow well where there is very little rainfall.
These melons are collected during and post-harvest periods and stored in fenced places as
supplementary feed. However, use of melons is a novel case in this district as nothing has been
mentioned in the literature before.
Figure 8: Melons serving as alternative fodder for livestock
Page 19 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 310
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
Communities set up fodder banks, though the tonnage is very little; and ranges between 1 and
4 tonnes at the most. The banks comprise grass, crop residue and dried mopane tree leaves.
Very often harvesting of tree branches tends to destroy the environment. However, findings of
this study reveal that, trees have always remained intact; and have only suffered minimal
pruning of their fresh branches. The explanation given is that the Ward practices the
‘controlled tree cutting’ method which is another novel case as this has not been mentioned in
the literature before. This method saves the environment and forests; and is in adherence with
the reinforcement of Environmental Management Agency regulations to conserve the
environment. This is also in compliance with the prevailing traditional or cultural laws upheld
by the traditional leaders within the Garanyemba Ward 13.
Findings of the study suggest that, ironically, though mountains and inselbergs have deprived
the grasslands and agricultural production space, they habitat a lot of tree species that are
pruned for fodder. The branches are eaten by livestock in their fresh state during the dry
seasons. Such trees are used for the ‘cut and carry’ method of availing fodder to livestock. This
system gives preference to the lean cattle, dairy cows and calves. Though maize grains form
part of fodder, the findings reveal that in the Garanyemba Ward 13, there are very few
households that afford this type of feed. In addition, very few people procure feed from retail
outlets because of prohibitive costs. The findings of the study indicate that the Garanyemba
Ward 13 has embarked on growing livestock fodder, but this is done on a very low note. This
concept is only practiced in three villages; namely Nsimbi, Zhogwe and Mawane 1; and not to
rest because of non-availability of water within the ward. The concept is said to be brought in
by the Agritex officers, Danida, ICRISAT, Practical Action and non-governmental organisations
like the Dabane Trust.
Responding to the efforts made to avail more fodder to the Ward, findings of this study reveal
that the communities in the Nsimbi village have constructed two sand dams to harvest water
to address the scarcity of water within the ward. The Nkumbu Sand Dam was constructed
across the Nkumbu River; while the Sabhakatsha Sand Dam is across the Pendi River. The
concept of sand dams has often been used in countries like Kenya. However, the Nsimbi
communities have had a buy in; with the help of non-governmental organisations such as the
Dabane Trust. These dams hold water for the whole year until the next rainfall season.
Communities use this water for domestic consumption, for watering their animals, doing
gardening to earn a living; and also, for growing fodder, but on a very small scale. Zhogwe and
Mawane 1 villages draw their water from the Thuli River because of their close proximity. This
water enables them to do large scale gardening and to grow fodder. Very modern seeds like
lab-lab, velvet, sun hemp, the Bhana and the Lucerne grass species are grown in the three
villages, but on a small scale.
The paddock system has been adopted as a source of fodder in this ward too, but on a very low
scale. The concept of paddocks is to improve grass, rangelands and animal productivity. One
of the tenents of this system is to rotate the grazing of livestock to avoid overgrazing and soil
erosion [48]. However, findings indicate that very few communities adhere to this principle;
and such an oversight defeats the potential and purpose of this system. According to [70], in
the past, this system has collapsed due to water shortage, lack of management, monitoring and
evaluation; and was subsequently abandoned.
Page 20 of 27
311
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
Assorted Practices of Providing Fodder
Findings of the study suggest that there are assorted practices of providing fodder adopted by
the communities. These comprise unrestricted sources where communities drive away their
animals in the morning and collect them in the evening. However, this type of fodder is viewed
to be of poor quality as indicated by [41]. Grasslands and rangelands are a major component
of livestock feed because financial constraints deter procurement of feed [57]. This option of
fodder provision is confirmed where communities graze their livestock at the Georgia ranch
close to the Mutandawenhema village. The farm was availed through the resettlement
programme.
Part of the livestock is sent to ‘emilageni’; which translates to ‘Lagisa’ [47]. ‘Lagisa’ is a
traditional method of providing fodder in a distant grazing land mostly found far away from the
rural areas for free. Owners and herdsmen keep their livestock at ‘emilageni’ where they build
temporary structures that are abandoned at the onset of rain when pastures restore. Such
grazing areas are found between Shashi and Shashani Rivers close to the Limpopo River. The
other practice is the ‘pit system’ where a pit that measures 2m x 2m x 2m is dug. Grass, crop
residues and dried mopane tree leaves are put in the pit which is covered by logs with soil on
top. The contents are left covered from August to September; and this method is said to give
the quality taste to fodder. In other instances, crop residues and legumes and groundnuts
bushes are placed on wooden trays and put under the shed. Coarse salt is added on top in bulk
and left to melt slowly. Salt is meant to preserve the bushes and make fodder to be tasty.
Findings further indicate that ‘molasses’ is added on to crop residues, grass and dried mopane
leaves to produce quality fodder for livestock. This is an agro-concept of making fodder as
confirmed by [16] that encourages the adoption of agro-industrial products such as molasses
and sugar top, maize and sorghum as part of cattle fodder. Meanwhile, [74] suggests use of
plantation crops and other industrial by-products like ethanol. [32] describe ethanol as a
product made from cereal grains such as corn, sorghum or wheat; with corn being the most
common feedstock used. This stuff is fermented and has an aromatic scent and it is palatable
to livestock.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Garanyemba Ward 13 is overwhelmed with numerous problems that affect the communities’
livestock, one of the main sources of their livelihoods. In particular, the geographical set up of
this Ward has created a limited space for the availability of grass for grazing land. The non- availability of grass which is the prime source of fodder emanates from frequent droughts that
have affected the district. The many mountains and inselbergs have deprived the Ward of the
agricultural production land on which crops are grown. This has further deprived the Ward of
crop residues that are the other critical component of fodder on which livestock depends. The
impact of climate change has manifested itself through droughts, low and erratic rainfall,
shortage of water, non-availability of grass and pastures, premature drying of rivers and
wetlands which are the main sources of water within the Ward. The communities have been
left with no sources of water for virtually anything. This situation has resulted in serious
shortage of fodder for livestock which is one of the major sources of livelihoods for the
communities in this ward. The potential of the livestock production has been affected too. The
Thuli River is the biggest in the area. However, it is distant from most of the communities
except Zhogwe and Mawane 1; making availability of water very difficult. The drilling of
Page 21 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 312
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
boreholes has been deterred by the granite stone which underlies the greater part of the ward.
This has made alternative sources of water very difficult too. These challenges have created
serious shortage of fodder within the ward.
Of great interest is that, regardless of these challenges, these problems have driven
communities to be innovative in terms of adopting a number of methods and practices to
prepare fodder for their livestock. This is to protect their assets against shortage of fodder
especially during dry seasons and to avert their loss. The methods comprise cutting grass,
collecting crop residues, sorghum stalks; and legumes and groundnuts bushes, the ‘cut and
carry’ system, use of dried mopane leaves with salt; and the use of maize grains though on a
low note. The novel fodder is the melons that are grown and collected from the fields and
stored for cattle fodder in the dry season. The adoption of the ‘pit, crop residue, mopane tree
leaves and the molasses system’ is to enhance the quality and flavour of fodder. Another
practice is having legumes and groundnuts bushes sprinkled with coarse salt. There are
however other assorted practices of availing fodder such as unrestricted grazing. Hay is made
from the grass that is cut and dried, however, there is lack of equipment and storage facilities.
Various organisations have jetted into the ward to train the communities on how to make
fodder for livestock to provide relevant skills to avoid shortage of fodder and loss of livestock.
The Agritex office plays a significant role in training communities though not all communities
have been covered. Livestock is sent for grazing in the neighbouring farm, the Georgia Ranch.
Some communities send their livestock to ‘emilageni’ – the ‘lagisa’ system which is far away
from their communities, but where there are pastures and water. The communities have
become more innovative and grown fodder in the form of the Bhana and Lucerne grass species,
lab-lab, velvet beans and sun hemp, but in only 3 villages out of 8. Though the paddocks are
used, they suffer from overgrazing. The other most significant innovation is the construction
of two sand dams by the communities. The Nkumbu Sand Dam is across the Nkumbu River
while the Sabhakatsha Sand Dam was constructed across the Pendi River. Notably, these two
sand dams are in one village. The Dabane Trust, a non-governmental organisation operating
within the Nsimbi village has spear headed the construction of these dams. These dams have
served to harvest large quantities of water which the communities use for drinking, to water
their animals, for gardening to earn a living and to grow fodder, but on a very small scale.
However, this water solution has not yet been adopted in 7 villages out of 8.
In the driest months, the communities in this Ward use the ‘cut and carry’ fodder making
system. The system derives fresh branches from ‘umkamba’, ‘marula’, ‘umbondo’, ‘umklamunzi
/ umpumpulwane’ and the dried mopane tree leaves to feed their livestock. By and large,
findings reveal that fodder is provided through three modes; namely naturally as in grazing
though scanty, it is prepared and partly grown. The greater part of livestock fodder is prepared
through cutting grass in April and May; and from June, July to August. The fodder harvested in
June to August is viewed to be of strong quality and resistant to rotting because it has been
subjected to the cold temperatures. Regardless of depriving the Ward of some natural
resources, the mountains and inselbergs are ironically heavily populated with various tree
species that provide the source of fodder for the ‘cut and carry fodder system’. These
mountains are a hub of various edible tree species too; that provide a source of livelihoods to
the communities. Besides, the mountainous view presents a beautiful scenery ideal for tourism.
The granite stone presents opportunities to exploit quarry stone for the construction industry
Page 22 of 27
313
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
which can create employment for the locals. The highlighted gaps include a request for training
to make ‘fodder pellets’, and the use of artificial rich chemicals to add value on fodder. The
study recommends awareness campaigns for workshops and refresher courses on fodder
production to target farmers. Also recommended is the construction of micro – dams and more
sand dams to avail water to set in motion the operation of irrigation schemes to grow fodder
crops to cope with the demand in the Garanyemba Ward 13.
REFERENCES
[1] Ahamed, M. S., Sultan, M., Shamshiri, R. R., Rahman, M. M., Aleem, M., (2022). Present Status and Challenges
of Fodder Production in Controlled Environment: A Review. Smart Agricultural Technology. Volume 3,
February 2022, 100080.
[2] Alexandratos, N., & Bruinsma, J. (2012). World Agriculture Towards 2030 / 2050: The 2012 Revision
Proof Copy ESAWorking paper No 12-03. [Google scholar].
[3] Alrefaey, A., Allam, A., Eman, I., and Serag, EL. (2019). Response of Barley Forage Production and Chemical
Analysis to Adding AZOLLA under Hydroponic Systems. Journal of Environmental Studies and Researchers
(2019), 9(A):16-26.
[4] Aranguiz, A. A., and Creemers, J., (2019). ‘Quick Scan of Ethiopia’s Forage Sub-Sector: Netherlands East
African Dairy Partnership (NEADAP) Working Paper’ Accessed on July 2021
[https://research.wur.nl/en/publications/quick-scan-of-ethiopias-forage-sub-sector-netherlands-east- africa].
[5] AU-IBAR, (2016): Livestock policy landscape in Africa: A Review.
http://www.au.ibar.org/component/jdownloads/finish/36-vet- gov/2712-livestock-policy-landscape-in- africa-a-review [accessed august 8, 2022]
[6] A1-Karaki, G. N., and A1-Hashmi, (2012). Green Fodder Production and Water use efficiency of some forage
crops under hydroponic conditions. ISRN Agron. (2012). 10.5402/2012/924672.
[7] Bakshi, M P S., Wadhwa, M Harinder, P S M 2017. Hydroponic Fodder Production: A Critical Assessment.
Broadening Horizons, : 1-10. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/22041871.
[8] Baltenweck, I., Cherney, D., Duncan, A., Eldermire, E., Lwoga, E.T., Labarta, R., Rao, E. J. O., Staal. S., and
Teufel N. (2020). A Scoping Review of Feed Interventions and Livelihoods of Small-Scale Livestock Keeper.
Nature Plants, 6(10), pp. 1242-1249.
[9] Bongo, P. P. (2007). Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction in the Context of Climate Change. A Case of
Rural Zimbabwe. ‘Mainstreaming Livelihood Centred Approaches to Disaster Management’.
[10] Boote, K. J., Adesogan, A. T., Balehegn, M., Duncan, A., Muir, J.P., Dubeux, J. C. B, and Rios, E. F. (2021).
Fodder Development in Su-Saharan Africa: An Introduction. Agronomy Journal. October 2021.
DOI:10.1002/agj220924. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355432142.
[11] Burlace, M. (2021). Why Selective Grazing Turns into Overgrazing at the Very High Stock Rates. Mar 08,
2021. From Real Wealth Ranching. (https://www.rwranching.com>blog>why-selective-gr) (Accessed 2nd
October, 2022).
[12] Catherine, A. M., Catherine, N., and Adijah, O. (2014). Relationship between Fodder Production Practices
and dairy production in Homa Bay and Ndhiwa /Districts, Kenya. American International Journal of Social
/science, 3(2), 121-130.
Page 23 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 314
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
[13] Chapman, S. C., Chakraborty, S., Dreccer, M. F., Howden SM (02). Plant Adaptation to Climate Change
Opportunities and Priorities in Breeding. Crop Pasture Sci, 63 (2012), pp. 251-268, 10.107/CP11303.
[14] Chikobvu, S.; Kassie, G.T.; Lunduka, R.W. Socio-Economics Program Working Paper. In Adoption of Drought
Tolerant Maize Varieties in Zimbabwe. Country Report—DT Maize Adoption Monitoring Survey-Zimbabwe;
CIMMYT: Mexico City, Mexico, 2014. [Google Scholar]
[15] Creswell, J. W. (2006). Chapter 1. Understanding Mixed Methods Research. Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage.
[16] DANIDA International Development Cooperation (Undated). Dairy Forage / Fodder Pilot Intervention
Programme. SNV Final Project Report.
[17] Denzin, N K., and Lincoln, Y. S. (2018). The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Researcg. Fifth Edition. SAGE
Publication Ltd. Los Angeles| London| New Delhi| Singapore| Washington DC| Melbourne.
[18] Descalzo, AM., Insani EM., Biolatto., A., Sancho. Am., Garcia, P.T., Pensel, N. A. and Jsoifovich, J. A. (2005).
Influence of Pasture or Grain - based Diets Supplemented with Vitamin E on Antioxidant / Oxidative
Balance of Argentine beef. Meat Sci., 70 (2005), pp. 35-44, 10.1016/j.meatsci.2004.11.018.
[19] Dikshit, A K., and Birthal, P S. (2010). India’s livestock feed demand: Estimates and Projections.
Agricultural Economics Research Review, 23(1), pp: 15-28.
[20] Dogrusoz, MC (2021). Can Plant Derived Smoke Solutions Support the Plant Growth and Forage Quality in
the Hydroponic System? Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2021), 10.1007/s/13762-021-03143-2.
[21] Dube, A. (2015). “The Effectiveness of Conservation Farming as a Strategy for Ensuring Food Security in
Zimbabwe: A Case Study of Gwanda South District, Ward 19”. Bachelors Honours Degree, Midlands State
University. Zimbabwe, 2015.
[22] Farghaly, M. M., Abdullah. M. A. M., Youssef, I. M. I., Abdel-Rahim, Abouelezz, K (2019). Effect of Feeding
Hydroponic Barley Sprouts to Sheep on Feed Intake Nutrient Digestibility, Nitrogen Retention, Rumem
Fermentation and Ruminal Enzymes Activity. Livest, Sci., 228 (2019), pp. 31-37,
10.1016/j.livsci.2019.07.022. https://doi.org/.
[23] Fazaeli, H., Golmohammadi, H. A., Shoayee, A. A., Montajebi, N., Mosharraf, S. (2011). Performance of
Feedlot Calves Fed Hydroponics Fodder Barley. J. Agric. Sci. Technol., 13 (2011), pp. 367-375.
[24] Food and Nutrition & WFP, (2022). Gwanda Profile 2022.
[25] Franka, P., Tartiu, V. E., Morone, P., Venus, J., and Honig, A. (2015). Assessing the Economic Profitability of
Fodder Legume Production for Green Bio-refineries – A Cost – benefit Analysis to Evaluate Farmer’s
Profitability. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112(2016), 3643-3656. DOI:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.07.108.
[26] Hove, L., Franzel., S. and Moyo, P. S. (2003). Farmer experiences in the Production and Utilisation of Fodder
Trees in Zimbabwe: Constraints and Opportunities for Increased Adoption. Tropical Grasslands (2003)
Volume 37, 279-283.
[27] IPCC, (2014). Summary for Policy Makers. In: Climate Change 2014: Impact, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on /climate /change [Field, C. B., V. R., Barros, D. J., Dokken, K. J., Mach., Mach, M. D.,
Mastrandrea, T. E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K. L. Ebi,., Y. O., Estrada, R. C., Genova, B. Girma, E. S. Kissel., A. N.
Levy, S. MacCracken, P. R. Mastrandrea, and L. L. White (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1-32.
Page 24 of 27
315
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
[28] Jemimah, E. R., Gnanaraji, P. T., Muthuramalingam, T., Devi, T., Vennila, C. (2018). Nutritive Value of
Hydroponic Yellow Maize Fodder and Conventional Green Fodders- a Comparison. Int. J. Agric. Sci. Vet.
Med., 6 (08), pp. 98-101.
[29] Jingura, R. M., Sibanda S., Hamudikuwanda, H. (2001). Yield and Nutritive Value of Tropical Forage
Legumes Gown in Semi-arid Parts of Zimbabwe. Tropical Grasslands 35: 168-174.
[30] Joosten, K., Ekodere, P., and Miano, G. (2014). Best Practice Brief – Fodder Production in Baringo County.
Article available at
http://asalsmarkets.wikispaces.com/file/view/BestpracticebriefMayianifoddergroup(2).pdf. (Accessed
20/09/2022).
[31] Kidake, B. K., Manyeki, J. K., Kubasu, D., and Mnene, W. N. (2016). Promotion of Range Fodder and Fodder
Production Among the Pastoral and Agro-pastoral Communities in Kenyan Rangelands: Experiences and
Lessons Learnt. Livestock Research for Rural Development, Volume 8.
http://www.Irrd.org/Irrd28/8/kida28151.html.
[32] Lardy, G. and Anderson, (2014). AS1242. Feeding Coproducts of the Ethanol Industry to Beef Cattle. North
Dakota State University. Revised August 2014.
[33] Lugusa, K. O. (2015). Fodder Production as an Adaptation Strategy in the Drylands: A Case Study of
Producer Groups in Baringo County, Kenya. MSc. Thesis, University of Nairobi.
[34] Maburutse, B. E., Mutibvu., D. T., Kashangura, M. (2012). Communal Livestock Production in Simbe, Gokwe
South District of Zimbabwe. Online Journal of Animal feed research 2: 351-360.
[35] Makhado, J. M. (1996). Potential Effects of Climate Change on Corn Production in Zimbabwe. Climate
Research, 6, 147 – 151.
[36] Malhi, G.S., Kaur, M., Sharma, K., Gupta, G. (2020). Hydroponics Technology for Green Fodder Production
under Resource Deficient Condition, Vigyn Varta 1(5): 65-68
[37] Mandizvidza, M. (2006). Dynamics of Agriculture. Harare: College Press.
[38] Mapiye, C., Mwale, M., Chikumba, N., Poshiwa, /x., Mupangwa, J F., Mugabe, P H. (2006). A Review of
Improved Forage Grasses in Zimbabwe. Trop. Subtop. Agroecosystems 2006, 6, 125-131. [Google scholar].
[39] Mapiye, C., Mupangwa., J. F., Mugabe, P. H., Chikumba, N., Poshiwa, X., Foti, R. (2006a). A Review of
Improved Forage /grasses in Zimbabwe. Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems 6: 125-131.
[40] Marongwe, (2003). Redistributive Land Reform and Poverty Reduction in Zimbabwe: A Working Paper for
The Research Project on ‘Livelihoods after Land Reform’.
(https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08ae4ed915d622C000985/60332Zimbabwe_Land_Re
form.pdf.). (Accessed 15/09/2021).
[41] Masikati, P. (2010). Improving the Water Productivity of Integrated Crop-Livestock Systems in the Semi- Arid Tropics of Zimbabwe: An Ex-Ante Analysis Using Simulation Modelling. PhD Thesis, Rheinischen
Friederick – Wilhelms – Universitat, Germany.
[42] Mawlood, B. H. (2017). Pragmatic Approach to Research. :
(https//www.slidesshares.net/bahrozshah/pragmatic-approach-to-research. (Accessed 17th November,
2018).
Page 25 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 316
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
[43] Mekasha, A., Gerard, B., Tesfaye, K., Nigatu, L., & Duncan, A J., (2014). Inter-connection between Land Use /
Land Cover Change and Herders’/Farmers’ Livestock Feed Resource Management Strategies: A Case Study
from Three Ethiopian Eco-environments. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 188, 150-162.
[44] Melesse, M. B., Tirra, A. N., Ojiewo, C. O. and Hauser, M. (2021). Understanding Farmers’ Trait Preferences
for Dual – Purpose Crops to Improve Mxed Crop-Livestock Systems in Zimbabwe. The International Crops
Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Nairobi, Kenya. Sustainability 021, 13(10), 5678;
https://doi.org/10.3390/su13105678.
[45] Meyerhoff, E. (2012). Pasture Development for Land Rehabilitation in Baringo. Article available at:
http://www.agriculturesnetwork.org/magazines/east-africa/deserrtification/pasture-development-for- land-rehabilitaiton-in-baringo-. (Accessed 2nd December 2022).
[46] Moyo, M., Dube, F. and Mujeyi, A. (2021). Dryland Crop Technology to Rescue Drought – hit Crop-Livestock
Farmers in Zimbabwe. ICRISAT. UN OCHA Zimbabwe.
[47] Mudzudzo, E., and Hawkes, R. (1996). Grazing and cattle as challenges in community based natural
resources management in Buliumamangwe District of Zimbabwe. Zambezia (1996), XXIII (i). Centre for
Applied Social Sciences, University of Zimbabwe'.
(https://jornals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/AJA03790622_194) (accessed 17/02/2023).
[48] Mugabe, P. H., Hamudikuwanda, H., Marovanidze, K., (2001). Governance of Grazing lands and schemes in
Zimbabwe with emphasis on schemes in Masvingo Province, Commons Southern Africa Occasional Paper
Series no. 2/2001. Harare: Centre for Applied Social Sciences, University of Zimbabwe: Bellville:
Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape.
[49] Mujaya, I. M., and Merekei, B. (2006). Agriculture Today: General Agriculture, Crop Husbandry and
Decorative Horticulture. Harare. ZPH Publishers.
[50] Munhande, C., Mapfungautsi, R., and Mutanga, P. (2013). “Climate Risk Management: Actors, Strategies and
Constraints for Small Holder Farmers in Zimbabwe: A Case Study of Chivi District by Harare Institute of
Technology”. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa. (Volume 15, No. 8 of 2013).
[51] Mupangwa, J. F., (1994). Fodder Production in /Small /Scale and Communal Sectors of Zimbabwe In:
Mutisi C, Madsen J, Hveplund T, Gomez M (eds), Proceedings of the Workshop on Integrated Livestock / Crop
Production in the Small – scale and Communal Farming Systems in Zimbabwe, 6 – 8 January 1994, Harare,
Zimbabwe. Harare: University of Zimbabwe, Department of Animal Science, pp 19-21.
[52] Mupangwa, W and Thierfelder, C. (2013). Intensification of Conservation Agriculture Systems for Increased
Livestock Feed and Maize Production in Zimbabwe. Int. J. Agric. Sustain. 2013, 12, 425-439.
[53] Mutambara, J. (2015). USAID Strategic Economic Research and Analysis – Zimbabwe (SERA). Maize
Marketing and Pricing in Zimbabwe. Contract Number: AID – 613 – C – 11 – 00001. USAID Zimbabwe.
[54] Naik, P. K., Dhuri, R. B., Karunakaran, M., Swain, B. K., Singh N. P. (2014). Effect of Feeding Hydroponics
Maize Fodder on Digestibility of Nutrients and Milk Production in Lactating Cows, Indian Journal of Animal
Nutrition, 32(1): 1-9. ***
[55] Nangole. E., Lukuyu, B. A., Franzel. S., Kinthia, E., Baltenweck, I. and Kirui, J. (2013). Livestock Feed
Production and Marketing in Central and North Rift Valley Regions of Kenya. Available at
https://egspace.cgiar.org/handle/0568/4450. (Accessed 30 November, 2022.
[56] Ndiweni, N. J. (2015). “Food Insecurity Vulnerability in South Western Zimbabwe: A Case of Rural
Households in Matobo District”. Dept of Geography and Population Studies. Lupane State University,
Zimbabwe. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa (Volume 17, No 2, 2015.
Page 26 of 27
317
Kumalo, J., & Manyani, A. (2023). Fodder Preparation Practices Adopted by Community Subsistence Farmers in Zimbabwe in the Face of Climate
Change: A Case Study of the Garanyemba Community Ward 13 in the Gwanda District, Matabeleland South Province. European Journal of Applied
Sciences, Vol - 11(2). 292-318.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.112.14282
[57] Ngongoni, N.T., Mwale., M., Mapiye, C, Moyo, M.T., Hamudikuwanda, H., Titterton, M., (2007a). Evaluation of
Cereal – Legume Intercropped Forages for Smallholder Dairy Production in Zimbabwe. Livestock Research
for Rural Development 9:129.
[58] Nyabadza, B. (2015). Zimbabwe: Small Grains Production To Decline. The Herald (All Africa, Global Media)
– 13 February, 2015.
[59] Nyathi, T. (2012). Food and Livelihoods Security.
(Http: www.practicalaction.org/foodandlivelihoodsecurity.com). Downloaded 27th August 2012).
[60] Ouma, O. E. (2017). Analysis of Fodder Production and Marketing in the Rangelands of Southern Kenya.
Masters of Science in Range Management. University of Nairobi, Kenya.
[61] Papanastasis, V. P., Decandia, M., Yiakoulaki. M. D. and Dini-Papanastatis, O. (2006). Potential of Fodder
Trees and Shrubs as Animal Feeds in the Mediterranean areas of Europe. Sustainable Grassland
Productivity. Proceedings of the 21st General Meeting of the European Grassland Federation. Badajoz,
Spain. 3-6 April 2006.
[62] Ramteke, R., Doneria, R and Gendley, MK. (2019). Hydronic Techniques for Fodder Production. Acta
Scientific Nutritional Health, 3(5), pp: 127-132.
[63] Resnik, D. B. (2007). Responsibility for Health: Personal, Social and Environment. Journal of Medical Ethics.
Vol 33:444-445.
[64] Rodrquez, M. C., Rodriquez, H. E, Ruinz, A. O., Flores, Grado, JA., and Arzola, C (2004). Use of Green Fodder
Produced in Hydroponic System as Supplement for Lactating cows During the Dry Season, in the
Proceeding of the American Society of animal Science, pp: 271-274.
[65] Rosegrant, M. R., Ringler, C., Sulser, T. B., Ewing, M., Palazzo, A., Zhu. T et al., (2009). Agriculture and Food
Security under Global change: Prospects for 2025 / 2050. Washington DC: International Food Policy
Research Institute.
[66] Siyamachira, J. (2011). Siamachira, J. (2011). Regional food security under threat. Cited in the Sunday Mail
Of, 10(April), 2011. [Google Scholar]
[67] Shah, V. D., Makwana, M., and Sharma, S. (2011). Economics of Production, Processing and Marketing of
Fodder Crops in Gujarat, India. Research Study No. 144.
[68] Shava, S. (2005). Research on Indigenous Knowledge and its Application: A Case of Wild Food Plants of
Zimbabwe: Southern African Journal of Environment Education. December 2005.
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233850130). (Accessed 16/2/2023).
[69] Singh, D. N., Bohra, J. S., Tyagi., T., Singh, T. R., Banjara, G., Gupta, G. (2022). A Review of India’s Fodder
Production Status and Opportunities. Grass Forage Sci, 77 (2022), pp. 1-10, 10.1111/gfs.12561.
[70] Smith, O. E. T. & Makkar, H. (2012). Successes and Failures with Animal Nutrition Practices and
Technologies in Developing Countries: A Synthesis of an FAO e-conference. Animal Feed science and
Technology, 174(3-4), 211-226.
[71] Tavirimirwa, B., Manzungu, E., Ncube, S., Mwembwe, R., Ncube, S., Washaya, S., and Mudzengi, C. (2019).
Efforts to Improve Zimbabwe Communal Grazing Areas: A Review, African Journal of Range & Forage
Science, 36:2, 73-83, DOI: 10.2989/10220119.1602566. https://doi.org/210.2989/10220119.1602566.
[72] The Henderson Research Station, (2005). Status Report Presented at the Consultative Stakeholder
Workshop held at Henderson Research Station, Mazowe, May 2005, 1-14.
Page 27 of 27
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom 318
European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 2, April-2023
[73] The Oregon State University, (2022). National Forage & Grasslands Curriculum.
https://forages.oregonstate.edu › introduction › history (accessed 25-9-2022).
[74] The Research Ethics Board, (2017). Guidelines on Anonymity and Confidentiality in Research. Ryerson
University.
[75] Thornton, P. K. (2010). Livestock Production: Recent Trends, Future Prospects. The Royal Society.
Published: 27 September 2010 https://doi.org/101098/rstb.2010.0134.
[76] Tichapondwa, S. M. (2013). Preparing Your Dissertation at a Distance: A Guide. Virtual University for
Small States of the Collonwealth. Vancouver.
[77] Titterton, M., and Bareeba, F. B. (2000). Grass and Legume Silages in the Tropics. FAO Plant Production and
Protection papers, pp. 43 - 50.
[78] Tshuma, N., and Mathuthu, T. (2014). “Perceptions of Small Holder Farmers in Mangwe District”: The
International Journal of Humanities and Social Studies, Climate Change in Zimbabwe. (IDS NUST, 2014).
[ISSN 2321-9203] (www.theijhss.com). (Accessed 19/9/2021).
[79] UNDP, (2020). ZRBF Resilience Knowledge Hub: Hoot, C., Stack, J., and Bidi, T. (2020). The Role of Fodder
in Building Resilience: A Scoping Study.
[80] VSF-Suisse, (009). ELMT technical brief; Fodder Production: Experiences and Lessons Learnt. Article
available at www.elmtrelpa.org/.../ELMT%TECHNICAL%0BRIEF_fodder%0production. (Accessed 29
August, 2022).
[81] Wang, O., Zhao, H., Xu., L. and Wang, Y. (2019). Uptake and Translocation of Organophosphate Flame
Retardants (OPFRs) by Hydroponically Grown Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Ecotoxiocol. Environ. Saf., 174
(2019), pp. 683-689, 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.03.029. https://doi.org.
[82] Welfel, E. R. (1998). Ethics in Counselling and Psychotherapy: Standards, Research and Emerging Issues.
London. Brooks / Cole Publishing Company.
[83] Wiersma, J., Moncada, K and Brake, M (2010). Risk Management Guide for Organ Producers. University of
Minnesota. St Paul. (www.irinnews.org/report/95489/zimbabwe-small-grains-are-tough-sell) (accessed
5/2/2018).
Cited Sources
[84] T. Muleya, - Beit Bridge Bureau. “Legislator in Drive to Save Beit Bridge Livestock Drought”. The Chronicle
5 September, 2019, National News, page 10.
[85] The Managing Editor. “Cattle Farmers Must Destock to Buy Feed for Their Herds”. The Chronicle 28
October, 2019, Editorial Comment, page 4.
W Water for Agriculture: Maintaining Food Security under Growing Scarcity
Annual Review of Environment and Resources