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European Journal of Applied Sciences – Vol. 11, No. 6
Publication Date: December 25, 2023
DOI:10.14738/aivp.116.14142
Ogunkunle, O. A., & Olajide, S. E. (2023). Ameliorating the Effects of Phytochemical Substances on the Setting of Cement with Rice
Bran in the Production of Particle Boards using a Natural Accelerator. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 11(6). 54-67.
Services for Science and Education – United Kingdom
Ameliorating the Effects of Phytochemical Substances on the
Setting of Cement with Rice Bran in the Production of Particle
Boards Using a Natural Accelerator
Olaoluwa Ayobami Ogunkunle
Department of Chemistry, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife
220005, Nigeria
Sunday Emmanuel Olajide
Department of Chemistry, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife
220005, Nigeria
ABSTRACT
This research work evaluated the various means and alternatives that could be
devised to improve the compatibility between rice bran and cement.
Phytochemicals referred to as inhibitory substances, present in rice bran hinders
its compatibility with cement via the means of compatibility factor obtained. The
various ways that were looked into include the hot water treatment extraction
process which reduced the intensity of water-soluble phytochemicals to an
acceptable level and the addition of chemical additives. More so, cow horn (natural
accelerator) - an appropriate naturally occurring calcium (Ca) source which is a
cheap and effective substitute for the chemical additives was employed in
improving compatibility factor. The existence and the extent of bonding in rice
bran-cement bonded composites were also looked into. In order to compare the
extent of compatibility, varying concentrations of chemical additives such as CaCl2,
FeCl3, SnCl2 and SnCl4 were used with cow horn. These chemical additives act as
accelerator as they decrease setting time. Thus, accelerating hydration reaction
between the mineral binder used which is Portland cement and the rice bran.
Keywords: compatibility factor, hot water treatment, hydration reaction, phytochemicals
and portland cement
INTRODUCTION
Over the last years, promising cement bonded wood composites for structural purposes have
evolved (Adams, 1980). Durability, toughness, high dimensional stability, resistance against
environmental influences such as biodegradation or weathering but also availability of the raw
material as well as economic factors are features which can make cement-bonded composites
superior to polymer-based composites. Environmentally sustainable lignocellulosic resources
are available in different forms of non-wood-based fibers and agricultural residues. Non-wood
commercial fibres include jute, sisal, kapok, kenaf, flax, hemp, ramie, to mention a few while
agriculture residues include stalks of most cereal crops, rice brans, groundnut hull, coconut
fibres, maize cobs, and other wastes. Petroleum-based synthetic binders, such as phenolic and
urea-formaldehyde, became costly items in the processing of wood panel products. An
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Ogunkunle, O. A., & Olajide, S. E. (2023). Ameliorating the Effects of Phytochemical Substances on the Setting of Cement with Rice Bran in the
Production of Particle Boards using a Natural Accelerator. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 11(6). 54-67.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.116.14142
alternative is the use of mineral binder (M’Hammed and Moslemi, 1988). Different mineral
binders, including Portland cement, magnesia and gypsum, are used to fabricate boards with
different properties (Han et al., 1998). However, the most expedient binder, concerning
strength, durability and acoustic insulation properties, is Portland cement. Many composites
have evolved in the last decades, e.g., cement-bonded wood wool boards (CBWW), cement- bonded particleboards (CBPB), and fibre-reinforced cement boards.
On the other hand, raw material demand of the forest industry increases annually. Industrial
wood production from the natural forests declines thus forcing the forest industry to find other
alternative lignocellulosic biomass as an alternative raw material for productions. This is
primarily done to reduce the growing rate of deforestation. The use of the renewable biomass
may result in several benefits such as environmental and socio-economic. Today, renewable
biomass is mostly accepted as waste materials and are mostly ploughed into the soil or burnt
in the field. There are already more than 30 plants that can be utilized as renewable biomass in
the production of particleboards around the world and this number is expected to increase in
future (Bektas et al., 2005).
The following summarizes the studies that examine the suitability of renewable biomass in
production. Sunflower stalks (Guler et al., 2006), coconut husk (Ogunkunle, 2008), wheat cereal
straws (Han et al., 1998), kenaf (Grigoriou et al., 2000), bamboo (Rowell and Norimoto, 1988),
waste of tea leaves (Yalinkilic et al., 1998) have already been studied by several researchers.
Agricultural lignocellulosic fibres such as rice bran can be easily crushed to chips or particles,
which are similar to wood particle or fiber and may be used as substitutes for wood-based raw
materials (Yalinkilic et al., 1998). Their usage can help in protecting the virgin forests especially
in regions already facing a shortage of wood (Han et al., 1998).
Particleboard is a panel product manufactured from lignocellulosic materials, primarily in the
form of discrete particles, combined with a synthetic resin or other suitable binder and bonded
together under heat and pressure (Grigoriou et al., 2000). In recent past, increasing attention
has been paid to the use of resin as a binder in the wood-based panel industry such as spruce
tannin as a binder for medium density fiberboards, lignin based adhesive or wheat starch
(Chung and Todd, 2002). Synthetic thermosetting resins are used to bond the fibers together
and other additives may be used to improve certain properties (Kolman et al., 1975). There are
several types of resins which are commonly used. Urea formaldehyde resin is the cheapest and
easiest to use. It is used for most non-water-resistant boards. Melamine formaldehyde resin is
significantly more expensive, as it is moisture resistant. Phenol formaldehyde is also fairly
expensive. The major disadvantage associated with urea formaldehyde adhesives is the lack of
resistance to moist conditions, especially in combination with heat. These conditions lead to a
reversal of the bond-forming reactions and the release of formaldehyde (Lay and Cranley,
1994).
MATERIALS AND METHOD
The cow horns used in this study were obtained from an abattoir located in Osun State, Nigeria,
while the rice bran was collected from a Rice processing centre located in Igbemo-Ekiti, Ekiti
State, Nigeria. Portland cement served as the mineral binder which was used for all hydration
experiments. Freshly harvested rice was first boiled in hot water before being debarked. The
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European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 6, December-2023
brans obtained were then hammer milled, washed, sorted, sieved and sundried for about two
weeks to reduce its moisture content to about 12%. The brans used in this study were finally
sieved into fine particle sizes of 650 microns. The hoofs (external cover) of the horns were
removed before soaking the inner bony part in water for about 24 hours and washed free of
blood. Solidified blood left in the porous part of the horns was removed with metallic sponge
and metal rods. They were reduced into smaller chips before being sun-dried for about two
weeks. The cow horns were hammer milled and sieved into particles of various sizes namely
the 0.60 mm, 0.85 mm, 2.00 mm and the fine particle sizes < 0.60mm.
Proximate Analysis
The proximate analysis was carried out on the sample particles of 650 microns rice bran at
Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, Obafemi Awolowo University, using the
recommended methodologies of Association of Official Analytical Chemists (A.O.A.C, 1984). The
contents tested for include; moisture, ash and organic matter, crude fibre and crude protein.
Various metal content levels were also determined using the Energy Dispersive X-ray
Fluorescence (EDXRF) method of analysis.
Hot Water Treatment Extraction
Some of the rice bran sample was pre-treated with de-ionized water at 80 °C in a thermostated
water bath for about one hour. This was done to reduce the concentrations of the water-soluble
extractives and other phytochemical substances in the sample. After about an hour, the sample
was sieved and re-washed in warm de-ionised water and later in cold water for about 10
minutes. It was repeatedly washed two more times before being sieved and then air-dried until
it attained a moisture content of about 12 percent. The solution extract of the first hot water
pre-treatment was collected, freeze-dried and used for phytochemical screening to determine
and ascertain the types and levels of inhibitory substances present in them (Norman, 2006).
Alkaloids, Anthraquinone, Reducing Sugar, Glycosides, Saponins, Tannins and Flavonoids were
tested for in the freeze-dried sample.
Hydration Experiment
Compatibility test was carried out to determine the extent and level of bonds that will be
formed between Portland cement and rice bran. This was carried out in form of hydration test,
some of which were done in the presence of chemical accelerators based on a method
developed by the Wood Composite Branch of Forestry Research Institute, Malaysia (FRIM). The
compatibility of cement with rice bran and the cow horn was determined using the Area-Ratio
method which involves the relative area under the curve of the sample-cement mixture and
that of neat cement (Hachim et al, 1990). The equipment used for the test is known as hydration
test kit comprising Dewar flask (a double wall container) embedded in an insulated system and
connected to a thermometer used in monitoring the temperature changes.
Hydration Experiment for Neat Cement
About 90 cm3 of de-ionised water was added to 200 g of neat cement in a plastic bag. The
resulting mixture was properly agitated until a homogenous paste was formed. A thermometer
was immediately inserted before it was sealed with a lid in the insulated experimental
hydration set. The temperature changes were recorded at an interval of 30 minutes for 24
hours. The average room temperature was also noted before and after each experiment. This
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Ogunkunle, O. A., & Olajide, S. E. (2023). Ameliorating the Effects of Phytochemical Substances on the Setting of Cement with Rice Bran in the
Production of Particle Boards using a Natural Accelerator. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 11(6). 54-67.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.116.14142
experiment was carried out in triplicate, after which a plot of temperature (°C) against time
(hour). The volume of de-ionised water used for subsequent experiments involving
lignocellulosic material was obtained using the expression
Volume of water = 90 + 15(0.3 – MC/100) (Frybort et al. 2008)
MC = Moisture Content; it was maintained at about 12%. The above describes the hydration
test for neat cement.
Hydration Experiment for Cement-Rice Bran Mixture
Hydration temperature experiment was also carried out on the cement-sample mixture to
determine the compatibility of the lignocellulosic sample with cement binder. It involved the
mixing of about 15 g of sample and 200 g of cement in a plastic bag. They were properly mixed
in the dry state before a calculated amount of de-ionised water obtained using the above
expression was added. The mixture was then properly mixed with the water until homogeneity
was achieved. It was noted that there was a slight rise in temperature. The mixture was quickly
placed inside the Dewar flask embedded in the insulated system and thermometer was
attached before it was closed with a lid. The sample-cement mixture hydration temperature
changes were recorded at an interval of 30 minutes for 24 hours and the average room
temperature was also noted before and after the experiment. Three replications of this
experiment were carried out.
For each of the experiment, a plot of hydration temperatures (°C) against time (hour) was made,
and it was compared with the one obtained for neat cement using Area-Ratio method.
The compatibility factor CA was obtained from the hydration experiment using the expression
below,
CA = (
Awc
Anc) × 100
CA is expressed in percentage (%)
Where;
Awc:Area under the hydration heating rate curve for sample-cement-water mixture.
Anc:Area under the hydration heating rate curve for neat cement mixture (Simatupang, 1979).
Addition of Chemical Additives
To ensure proper mixing with the sample-cement mixture, the chemical additives were first
dissolved in a little amount of de-ionised water before making it up to the calculated required
amount of water used in the hydration experiment. This solution is then added to the sample- cement mixture that has been properly mixed. The chemical additives used for this experiment
were Iron (III) chloride (FeCl3.6H2O), Calcium chloride (CaCl2), Tin (II) chloride (SnCl2), Tin (IV)
chloride (SnCl4) and the cow horn which is a rich source of calcium. A modification was
employed in the case of the cow horn due to its insolubility in water. It was added to the sample- cement mixture before the addition of the required amount of water. The amount of additives
used in the compatibility experiments was based on the weight of cement used. The summary
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of the set of hydration experiments carried out on the samples using the same above-described
method is shown in the table below.
The resulting cured composites obtained from the hydration test experiments were then dried,
crushed into powdery form, and kept in different labelled sample bottles. They were subjected
to Infra-red spectrophotometric analysis, using FTIR system, spectrum BX model, at the Central
Science Research Laboratory of the University of Ibadan, Nigeria to determine if truly bonds
were formed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Proximate Analysis
The proximate analysis carried out on cow horn sample gave values of 39.87, 0.48, 5.96 and
53.96% for the crude protein, ether extract, moisture and ash contents respectively while the
rice bran sample gave 5.56, 18.19, 14.53, 4.81, 2.46 and 54.45%for moisture, ash, crude fibre,
crude protein, ether extract and nitrogen free extract contents respectively. The percentage
composition of the moisture in the cow horn sample is approximately 6% which made the
sample to be very suitable for this work (Pelanpus et al, 2007). Ash content also known as the
mineral content has the highest value while the ether extract which determines the fat, oil and
lipid content of the sample had the lowest value. Crude protein content of approximately 40%
was obtained indicating the presence of nitrogenous compounds such as amino acids and fibres
are suspected to be in the form of collagen and keratin (ASBMR, 2007). This is expected to
further enhance the bondability and the strength of the composites made from the sample
(Hofstrand et al., 1982). In the rice bran sample, nitrogen free extract had the highest value,
followed by ash content and crude fibre. These values account for the lignin and cellulose
content of the sample which made the sample suitable as a substitute for wood. The moisture
content of 5.56% is ideal for hydration experiment (Marra, 1992)
Phytochemical Screening
Various phytochemical substances were detected in the hot-water extract of the rice bran
samples. Flavonoids, glycosides, alkaloids, and sugar were present in high quantities
confirming the polyphenolic and nitrogenous nature of these inhibitory substances (Hachim et
al., 1990). This indicated that quite a substantial amount of these substances was removed
through hot-water extraction process (Moslemi et al., 1983). Result of this screening showed
rice bran contain higher phytochemicals than other agricultural residues like groundnut hulls
and coconut husks (Ogunkunle, 2008), kenaf (Grigoriou, 2000), wheat straw (Parker, 1997) etc.
Metal Analysis
The metal analysis for the cow horn and rice bran sample showed a very high concentrations
of calcium for both samples. The highest value of 62.68 wt% was obtained for the cow horn as
expected while the rice bran had 16.7360%. Potassium (K) also had high values in two samples.
Other metals were present but in very negligible quantities. Calcium had the highest
concentration of about 63% by weight followed by potassium. The high concentration value of
calcium could be attributed to the nature of the sample and its location in the body of animal.
Since all the main compounds present in the Portland cement used for this study contained
calcium (Neville and Brook, 1993), addition of the bone sample as chemical additive will further
increase the concentration of this metal in the experimental mixture. Hence more cations are
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Ogunkunle, O. A., & Olajide, S. E. (2023). Ameliorating the Effects of Phytochemical Substances on the Setting of Cement with Rice Bran in the
Production of Particle Boards using a Natural Accelerator. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 11(6). 54-67.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.116.14142
available for coordination and bond formation. All the other metals present in both samples
were transition elements, although they all have relatively low concentration. Due to their
ability to use the d-orbital characteristics in chelation, they also enhance coordination in the
sample-cement composite (Papadopoulos, 1999)
Metals play a major role in bond formation in the boards, which usually results in higher and
better mechanical properties (Paul, 2008). Metal analysis of rice bran showed potassium has
the highest concentration in the rice bran followed by calcium and chromium has the lowest
concentration. The concentrations of K, Ca and Fe agreed with those reported by Ogunkunle
(2008). Ca, K, Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn are present in both samples, the addition of cow horn to rice
bran as additive further increased the concentration of these metals in the composite. Thus,
leading to more bond formation with these metals through chelation (Mantanis, 2001). This
was evident in the result of the compatibility factor.
Compatibility Test
The compatibility factor CA of pure cement is shown in table 1.
Table 1: Compatibility Factor (CA) for pure cement
Binder Sample Average CA (%) Peak Temp ( ̊C)
Cement Cement 102.33 62.7
It was observed that the compatibility factors (CA) values of untreated rice bran had the lowest
as compared to its treated counterpart and all other compositions as shown in figure 1. This
can be attributed to the high concentration of phytochemicals present in it thereby hindering
its setting with cement.
Figure 1: Comparison of compatibility factors
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Compatibility Factor (CA)
CEM – utd RBN
composite
CEM – ttd RBN
composite
KEY
CEM – Cement
RBN – Rice
bran
Utd –
Untreated
Ttd - Treated
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Upon the addition of 2% CaCl2, an improvement was observed where the average CA value
increased from 70.04 to 97.70 for untreated and hot water treated samples respectively. This
can be attributed to the effect of CaCl2 where it formed bonds with the active sites of the
phytochemical substances inhibiting the setting of cement with the sample, Thus, rendering
them inert (Moslemi et al.,1983). The higher values obtained in the hot water treated must have
been as a result of the reduction in the concentration of phytochemical substances due to the
hot water extraction. The compatibility factors (CA) obtained from the hydration temperature
experiments using the untreated and hot-water treated samples in the presence of 0 and 2% of
CaCl2 as additive. Figure 2 showed that there was a better compatibility between the cement
and the rice bran samples in the presence of 2% CaCl2 based on the weight of cement. An
average CA value of 70.04% was obtained with CaCl2 and 64.96% without CaCl2. Masking of
active sites by Ca is responsible because during the hydration, calcium ions attack the active
functional groups (mainly the hydroxyl and carbonyl) of some of the phytochemical substances
and hence reduce the inhibitory effect of these substances on cement setting and hardening (Xu
and Stark, 2005). A corresponding increase in the peak temperature was also observed which
agreed with the result of studies carried out by Ogunkunle (2008) on groundnut hulls. A better
CA value was obtained with the hot-water treated samples, for those with CaCl2 and without
(Morteza et al., 2011). This can be attributed to the removal of some inhibitory phytochemical
substances through the hot-water extraction and a further masking of the active sites which
rendered them inert thus reducing their interference in setting of cement with the rice bran
samples (Moslemi et al.,1983).
Figure 2: Compatibility factors in the presence of CaCl2
On replacing the CaCl2 additive with cow horn, there was a trend change in the CA values (Figure
3). Lower values of CA were obtained with the value of 64.02% arising from the 2% cow horn
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Compatibility Factor (CA)
KEY
CEM – Cement
RBN – Rice
bran
Utd –
Untreated
Ttd - Treated
CEM – utd
RBN
composite
CEM – ttd
RBN
composite
CEM – utd
RBN
composite +
2% CaCl2
CEM – ttd
RBN
composite +
2% CaCl2
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Ogunkunle, O. A., & Olajide, S. E. (2023). Ameliorating the Effects of Phytochemical Substances on the Setting of Cement with Rice Bran in the
Production of Particle Boards using a Natural Accelerator. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 11(6). 54-67.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.116.14142
additive. The CA range obtained fell within that proposed value of 60% by Moslemi and Hachmi,
(1990) as being very appropriate. Better CA values were obtained with hot-water treated
samples. These values indicated that the cow horn sample can be used as a good and cheap
replacement for chemical additives that acts as enhancers in the setting of cement with the
lignocellulosic sample. Values obtained were lower than those obtained when CaCl2 was used.
This was attributed to the impure nature of the calcium present in the horn which will definitely
affect its potency (Figure 3). It is also obvious that the hot-water treated sample performed
better and the peak temperature were lower than those obtained with pure CaCl2.
Figure 3: Trend change in compatibility factor with change from CaCl2 to cow horn
The trend of compatibility of the untreated and hot-water treated samples are represented in
Figure 4. Better alignments of the bars were observed with the hot-water treated sample which
further suggested that some polyphenolic inhibitory substances that usually disturb the setting
of the cement which must have been highly reduced by the treatment (Morteza et al., 2011).
Higher CA value translates to better compatibility between the lignocellulosic species and
cement which also translates to better stability and strength in the board produced using such
residues.
Table 2
Sample Sample – Cement ratio (g) Average CA (%) Peak Temp ( ̊C)
Bone 15: 200 99.38 55
The results presented in the above table showed that bone (without additives) is ideal for the
production of the cement-bonded particle board. The bone-cement mixture attained the peak
temperature of 55 °C with CA value of 99.38 after just 7.5 hours, and on the other hand, when
rice bran was mixed with the cow horn, the peak temperatures were not attained until about
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
CEM – utd
RBN
composite +
1% CHN
CEM – ttd
RBN
composite +
1% CHN
CEM – ttd
RBN
composite +
2% CHN
CEM – utd
RBN
composite +
2% CHN
KEY
CEM – Cement
RBN – Rice
bran
CHN – Cow
horn
Utd –
Untreated
Ttd - Treated
Compatibility Factor (CA)
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European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 6, December-2023
12–14 hours later. This outstanding performance of the cow horn may be due to its high
percentage of the crude protein content. Protein, being a polyamide containing amino and
carboxylic functional group through which they can form bonds with the ions in the cement.
The higher the number of bonds formed, the more the strength of the composite. The presence
of keratin and collagen also contribute to the strength of the bone-cement composite (ASBMR,
2007).
Rice bran-cow horn ratio of 15:10 gave better compatibility values (CA) for untreated sample
and hot-water treated sample respectively. The hot-water treated sample-bone mixtures were
observed to attain their peak temperature earlier when compared with the untreated ones. This
may be due to the reduction in the polyphenolic phytochemical substances after hot-water
treatment (Wei et al., 1999).
Figure 4
In no case should the quantity of chemical additive exceed 2% by mass of the cement material.
An overdose can result in the placement problems which could be detrimental to concrete
formation by causing large increase in dry shrinkage which leads to loss of strength at later
ages (Neville, 1999).
It is quite strange that Iron (III) chloride performed lower than expected despite its chelating
capability for both untreated and treasted with only 3% Iron (III) chloride and 1% cow horn
with the treated sample giving a higher value than 1% and 2%. This can be attributed to the
kind and quantity (extremely high) of phytochemical substances present (figure 5)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
KEY
CEM – Cement
RBN – Rice
bran
CHN – Cow
horn
Utd –
Untreated
Ttd - Treated
CEM + utd
RBN CHN (3 :
2) composite
CEM + ttd
RBN CHN (3 :
2) composite
CEM + utd
RBN CHN (2 :
1) composite
CEM + ttd
RBN CHN (2 :
1) composite
Compatibility Factor (CA)
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Ogunkunle, O. A., & Olajide, S. E. (2023). Ameliorating the Effects of Phytochemical Substances on the Setting of Cement with Rice Bran in the
Production of Particle Boards using a Natural Accelerator. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 11(6). 54-67.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.116.14142
Figure 5
Metals with high oxidation number have low or little tendency to form bonds, this can be
attributed to the unavailability of electrons which has been lost to bonding with the primary
anion. This corroborates the mixture of 2% Sn (II) chloride and 1% cow horn which gave a
better result due to its stability and its CA value can be matched to that of 2% CaCl2, whereas 2%
Sn (IV) chloride gave a lower value.
Figure 6
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
CEM + utd
GNT CHN :
FeCl3 (1 : 2)
CEM + utd
GNT CHN :
FeCl3 (1 : 3)
CEM + ttd
GNT CHN :
FeCl3 (1 : 2)
CEM + utd
GNT CHN :
FeCl3 (1 : 3)
Compatibility Factor (CA)
CEM + utd
RBN CHN :
SnCl2 (1 : 2)
CEM + utd
RBN CHN :
SnCl4 (1 : 2)
CEM + ttd
RBN CHN :
SnCl4 (1 : 2)
CEM + ttd
RBN CHN :
SnCl2 (1 : 2)
Compatibility Factor (CA)
KEY
CEM – Cement
RBN – Rice
bran
CHN – Cow
horn
Utd –
Untreated
Ttd - Treated
KEY
CEM – Cement
RBN – Rice
bran
CHN – Cow
horn
Utd –
Untreated
Ttd - Treated
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European Journal of Applied Sciences (EJAS) Vol. 11, Issue 6, December-2023
Infrared Spectrocopic Analysis
The infrared Spectrocopy Analysis was used to ascertain truly if new bonds were formed and
cured composites from the hydration tests are not the same as the starting materials. The
infrared bands of the bone and the rice bran samples were compared with those of their
respective composites with and without chemical additives. A lower band shift was observed
from 1656.50 cm-1 which is tentatively assigned to C=O for the cow horn to 1647.30 cm-1,
1644.23 cm-1, and 1650.37 cm-1 for the cow horn-cement mixture, hot-water treated rice bran- cow horn (15:10) and untreated rice bran-cow horn (15:7.5) respectively. This lower shift
indicated bond formation through the carbonyl functional group. Similar trend was observed
in the C-O ether where the band moved from 1239.40 cm-1 for the cow horn to 1119.79 cm-1,
1119.79 cm-1, 981.78 cm-1 and 1116.63 cm-1 respectively for the cow horn-cement mixture,
treated rice bran-cow horn (15:10), treated rice bran-cow horn (15:7.5) and untreated rice
bran-cow horn (7.5:7.5) respectively. The changes in the intensity of some of these band peaks
in hot-water sample as compared to its respective non-treated counterpart was attributed to
the reduction in the concentration of compounds tentatively responsible for the functional
group due to the hot water extraction. More bond formations were assumed at the C=O and C- O functional groups due to lower shift observed as 1% of the cow horn sample was added to
the rice bran-cement mixture. There was a shift to lower band from 1659.82 cm-1 for the rice
bran to 1619.70 cm-1 for treated rice bran-cement mixture + 1% cow horn sample, which
showed coordination through the C=O functional group. Bonds were also formed through the
C-O of esters or ethers due to the lower shift experienced for the bands of untreated & treated
rice bran-cement + 2% cow horn and treated rice bran-cement + 3% cow horn which give
1113.66 cm-1, 1116.72 cm-1, 1104.46 cm-1 respectively, and compare with the 1128.99cm-1 of
the rice bran.
On the addition of Iron (III) chloride (FeCl3), lower shift band was observed when 3473.14 cm- 1 for rice bran is compared with the untreated sample + 1% cow horn + 2% Fe3+, hot-water
treated sample + 1% cow horn + 2% Fe3+, untreated sample + 1% cow horn + 3% Fe3+
, hot- water treated sample + 1% cow horn + 3% Fe3+ which give 3467 cm-1, 3846.15 cm-1, 3489.01
cm-1 and 3906.59 cm-1 respectively, this indicates bond formation either through the hydroxyl
(broad band). A lower shift was also observed for C-O of esters or ethers from 1128.99cm-1 for
rice bran to 1116.63 cm-1, 1122.12 cm-1, 1119.38 and 1119.38 cm-1 for the untreated sample +
1% cow horn + 2% Fe3+, treated sample + 1% cow horn + 2% Fe3+, untreated sample + 1% cow
horn + 3% Fe3+ and treated sample + 1% cow horn + 3% Fe3+ respectively. The above stated
observations were also evident on addition of Tin (II) Chloride and Tin (IV) Chloride. Higher
absorption bands were observed with composites containing more than 2% of the additives
leading to the weakening of the bands as suggested by Sample et al., (2002).
CONCLUSION
From this study, it can be concluded that rice bran which is excessively abundant as wastes or
source of pollution through burning can be put into the production of multipurpose particle
boards. Due to a relatively average level of compatibility factor, it gave with an improved value
with the treated sample. Furthermore, cow horn is a good substitute for calcium chloride in
ameliorating the effects of phytochemical substances in the setting of cement with rice bran.
Also, calcium chloride is relatively expensive as compared to cow horn which is cheap, readily
available and a natural resource. Rice bran contains more phytochemical substances compared
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Ogunkunle, O. A., & Olajide, S. E. (2023). Ameliorating the Effects of Phytochemical Substances on the Setting of Cement with Rice Bran in the
Production of Particle Boards using a Natural Accelerator. European Journal of Applied Sciences, Vol - 11(6). 54-67.
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.14738/aivp.116.14142
to other agricultural residues in higher amount. Despite the chelating property of Iron (III)
chloride, it did not give the best result until after a 3% addition but Tin (II) chloride gave a
better compatibility factor than Tin (IV) chloride. Evidence of bonds formation were observed
through the O-H, C=O, C-O and non-aromatic methylene group but the O-H and C-O were the
most prominent. Reducing the usage of chemicals in cement bonded particle boards to reduce
leaching. Moreso, rice bran which serves as a source of fuel for cooking thereby releasing
aromatics into the environment can be put into more economic and viable use such as the
production of cement particle bonded boards which are environmentally friendly.
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